[Heredity and cancer]. / Hérédité et cancer.

A personal or family history of cancer has now become the primary cause of genetic consultations. In recent years, various genes have been identified that are associated with a more or less marked genetic predisposition to the development of cancers. The syndrome associated with the hereditary risk of breast and ovarian cancer and the Lynch syndrome are the most frequent ones, but there are many other, much less common, situations associated with familial cancer risk. In most cases, there are clear recommendations regarding the indications for genetic testing and the follow-up of patients identified as having a predisposition to cancer. At the CHU of Liège, we currently perform more than 1.400 oncogenetic consultations per year and we maintain a positivity rate of genetic tests performed in this indication higher than 10%. In this way, we allow a multidisciplinary care of patients with a high oncological risk and participate in a prevention and surveillance activity. We also pay increasing attention to the hereditary risk associated with pediatric cancers and to patients with multiple cancers, especially when these develop at an early age. Finally, the oncogenetic consultation must consider the psychological, ethical and legal aspects of a diagnosis that involves the patient and his or her future, but also the whole family.

Une histoire personnelle ou familiale de cancer est aujourd'hui devenue la première cause de consultation en génétique. Au cours de ces dernières années, en effet, différents gènes associés à une prédisposition génétique plus ou moins marquée au développement de pathologies cancéreuses ont été identifiés. Le syndrome de prédisposition héréditaire au cancer du sein et de l'ovaire (HBOC : Hereditary Breast and/or Ovarian Cancer) et le syndrome de Lynch sont les plus fréquents. Mais il existe une multitude d'autres situations beaucoup moins fréquentes associées à un risque familial de cancer. Dans la plupart des cas, des recommandations claires existent quant à l'indication des tests génétiques et quant au suivi proposé au patient chez qui une prédisposition au cancer est identifiée. Au CHU de Liège, nous réalisons actuellement plus de 1.400 consultations d'oncogénétique par an et nous maintenons un taux de positivité des tests génétiques réalisés dans cette indication supérieur à 10 %. De cette façon, nous permettons une prise en charge multidisciplinaire des patients avec un haut risque oncologique et participons à une activité de prévention et de surveillance. Nous portons une attention croissante aux enfants et adolescents présentant un cancer, d'une part, et aux adultes ayant présenté de multiples cancers, d'autre part, particulièrement lorsque ceux-ci se développent à un âge précoce. Enfin, la consultation d'oncogénétique doit tenir compte des aspects psychologiques, éthiques et légaux, liés à un diagnostic qui implique le patient et son avenir, mais également l'ensemble de la famille.

[Periventricular nodular heterotopia : a pediatric case]. / L'hétérotopie nodulaire périventriculaire. Un cas pédiatrique.

Periventricular nodular heterotopia (PVNH) is a cerebral cortex malformation, due to a deletion/duplication in the FLNA gene, located on the chromosome X. The gene is coding a cytoskeleton protein. The transmission is dominant. It enters the heterogeneous group of philaminopathies. There is a feminine predominance. Males most often show early lethality. The clinical presentation is characterised by a seizure disorder ranging from mild to intractable, a mental retardation, hypotonia, cardiovascular abnormalities, vasculopathy and/or coagulopathy leading to stroke. The surveillance must be made by a pluridisciplinary team and the genetic counseling is necessary. We present here a paediatric case.

L'hétérotopie nodulaire périventriculaire classique (HNP) est une malformation du cortex cérébral, liée à des mutations du gène FLNA, localisé sur le chromosome X et codant une protéine du cytosquelette. La transmission est dominante. Elle fait partie d'un groupe hétérogène de pathologies : les filaminopathies. Il y a une prédominance féminine et une létalité précoce chez le garçon. Le tableau clinique est caractérisé par une épilepsie de sévérité variable, un retard psychomoteur global et un risque élevé de maladies cardiovasculaires, accident vasculaire cérébral et autres problèmes vasculaires et/ou de la coagulation. La prise en charge est généralement pluridisciplinaire. Un conseil génétique est fortement recommandé. Nous décrivons ici un cas pédiatrique.

[Marfan syndrome in childhood and adolescence]. / Le syndrome de Marfan chez l'enfant et l'adolescent : cas clinique.

The Marfan syndrome is a systemic connective tissue disorder with autosomal dominant inheritance. A mutation of the fibrillin-1 gene, a glycoprotein which is the main constituent of the extracellular matrix, is the cause of the disease. The cardinal features involve the skeletal, ocular and cardiovascular systems. The expression of the Marfan syndrome varies from the severe neonatal presentation to the classical manifestations of the child and young adult, but also comprises isolated features. In children, phenotypical manifestations are age dependent. For these reasons, the diagnosis of Marfan syndrome might be lately revealed by its cardiovascular complications. We report the case of 2 siblings: it illustrates the phenotypic variability that might be observed in a same family, the phenotype evolution with age and the diagnosis challenge in childhood.

Le syndrome de Marfan est une maladie systémique du tissu conjonctif qui se transmet de façon autosomale dominante. Elle est due à une mutation du gène codant pour la fibrilline-1, une glycoprotéine, constituant principal des microfibrilles de la matrice extra-cellullaire. La maladie touche principalement le squelette, les yeux et le système cardiovasculaire. Son expression phénotypique est variable avec des formes néonatales sévères, un tableau classique chez l'enfant ou le jeune adulte ou des lésions isolées d'un seul organe. Chez l'enfant, le phénotype évolue avec l'âge. Ainsi, le syndrome de Marfan peut n'être reconnu que tardivement, par exemple à l'occasion de manifestations de ses complications cardiovasculaires. Le cas d'un adolescent et de sa jeune sœur que nous rapportons ici illustre la variabilité phénotypique au sein d'une même famille, l'évolution des manifestations cliniques et la difficulté diagnostique chez l'enfant.

Mutations in the T (brachyury) gene cause a novel syndrome consisting of sacral agenesis, abnormal ossification of the vertebral bodies and a persistent notochordal canal.

BACKGROUND: The T gene (brachyury gene) is the founding member of the T-box family of transcription factors and is vital for the formation and differentiation of the mesoderm and the axial development of all vertebrates. RESULTS: We report here on four patients from three consanguineous families exhibiting sacral agenesis, a persistent notochordal canal and abnormal ossification of the vertebral bodies, and the identification and characterisation of their underlying genetic defect. Given the consanguineous nature and the similarity of the phenotypes between the three families, we performed homozygosity mapping and identified a common 4.1 Mb homozygous region on chromosome 6q27, containing T, brachyury homologue (mouse) or T. Sequencing of T in the affected individuals led to the identification of a homozygous missense mutation, p.H171R, in the highly conserved T-box. The homozygous mutation results in diminished DNA binding, increased cell growth, and interferes with the normal expression of genes involved in ossification, notochord maintenance and axial mesoderm development. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified a shared homozygous mutation in three families in T and linked it to a novel syndrome consisting of sacral agenesis, a persistent notochordal canal and abnormal ossification of the vertebral bodies. We suggest that screening for the ossification of the vertebrae is warranted in patients with sacral agenesis to evaluate the possible causal involvement of T.

HPV DNA testing in population-based cervical screening (VUSA-Screen study): results and implications.

BACKGROUND: Human papillomavirus (HPV) testing is more sensitive than cytology for detecting high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). We evaluated the performance of high-risk HPV (hrHPV) testing in routine screening. METHODS: In all, 25,871 women (29-61) enrolled in our population-based cohort study were offered both cytology and hrHPV testing. High-risk HPV-positive women with normal cytology and an age-matched subcohort of hrHPV-negative women with normal cytology were invited for repeat testing after 1 and/or 2 years and were referred for colposcopy if they presented with abnormal cytology and/or a positive hrHPV test. The hrHPV-positive women with borderline or mild dyskaryosis (BMD) and all women with moderate dyskaryosis or worse (>BMD) were directly referred for colposcopy. Women with BMD and an hrHPV-negative test were advised to repeat cytology at 6 and 18 months and were referred for colposcopy if the repeat cytology test was abnormal. The main outcome measure was CIN grade 3 or worse (CIN3+). Results were adjusted for non-attendance at repeat testing. RESULTS: The hrHPV-positive women with abnormal cytology had a CIN3+ risk of 42.2% (95% confidence interval (CI): 36.4-48.2), whereas the hrHPV-positive women with normal cytology had a much lower risk of 5.22% (95% CI: 3.72-7.91). In hrHPV-positive women with normal cytology, an additional cytology step after 1 year reduced the CIN3+ risk to only 1.6% (95% CI: 0.6-4.9) if the repeat test was normal. The CIN3+ risk in women with hrHPV-positive normal cytology was higher among women invited for the first time (29-33 years of age) (9.1%; 95% CI: 5.6-14.3) than among older women (3.0%; 95% CI: 1.5-5.5). CONCLUSION: Primary hrHPV screening with cytology triage in women aged 30 years is an effective way to stratify women on CIN3+ risk and seems a feasible alternative to cytological screening. Repeat cytology after 1 year for hrHPV-positive women with normal cytology is however necessary before returning women to routine screening.

Human papillomavirus DNA testing for the detection of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 and cancer: 5-year follow-up of a randomised controlled implementation trial.

BACKGROUND: Tests for the DNA of high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) have a higher sensitivity for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 or worse (CIN3+) than does cytological testing, but the necessity of such testing in cervical screening has been debated. Our aim was to determine whether the effectiveness of cervical screening improves when HPV DNA testing is implemented. METHODS: Women aged 29-56 years who were participating in the regular cervical screening programme in the Netherlands were randomly assigned to combined cytological and HPV DNA testing or to conventional cytological testing only. After 5 years, combined cytological and HPV DNA testing were done in both groups. The primary outcome measure was the number of CIN3+ lesions detected. Analyses were done by intention to treat. This trial is registered as an International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial, number ISRCTN20781131. FINDINGS: 8575 women in the intervention group and 8580 in the control group were recruited, followed up for sufficient time (> or =6.5 years), and met eligibility criteria for our analyses. More CIN3+ lesions were detected at baseline in the intervention group than in the control group (68/8575 vs 40/8580, 70% increase, 95% CI 15-151; p=0.007). The number of CIN3+ lesions detected in the subsequent round was lower in the intervention group than in the control group (24/8413 vs 54/8456, 55% decrease, 95% CI 28-72; p=0.001). The number of CIN3+ lesions over the two rounds did not differ between groups. INTERPRETATION: The implementation of HPV DNA testing in cervical screening leads to earlier detection of CIN3+ lesions. Earlier detection of such lesions could permit an extension of the screening interval.

Implementation of human papillomavirus testing in cervical screening without a concomitant decrease in participation rate.

Adding high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) testing to screening increases the efficacy of cervical screening programmes. However, hrHPV testing may result in a lower participation rate because of the perceived association with sexually transmitted infections. We describe how testing for hrHPV was added to cervical screening in the POpulation-BAsed SCreening study AMsterdam (POBASCAM) trial. Participation rates of the screening programme before and after hrHPV implementation were evaluated in the region where the POBASCAM trial was carried out. The participation rate was 58.7% before and 61.4% after the addition of hrHPV testing to screening (p<0.001). An inventory of frequently asked questions is presented. Thus, hrHPV testing can be added to cervical screening by cytology without a decrease in participation rate.

14-3-3 testing in diagnosing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: a prospective study in 112 patients.

OBJECTIVE: To study the sensitivity and specificity of 14-3-3 testing in a prospective series of patients suspected of having Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). BACKGROUND: The 14-3-3 protein immunoassay on CSF has favorable test characteristics as a premortem diagnostic tool in CJD. However, the 14-3-3 protein is a normal cellular protein expressed in various tissues, and its presence in CSF reflects extensive destruction of brain tissue as in CJD, but also in ischemic stroke and meningoencephalitis. METHODS: 14-3-3 was tested in the CSF of a prospective series of 110 consecutive patients suspected of having CJD. RESULTS: The sensitivity was 97% and the specificity was 87% in this series. False-positive results were mainly caused by stroke and meningoencephalitis. CONCLUSION: The 14-3-3 protein is a highly sensitive and specific marker for CJD when used in the appropriate clinical context.

The Dutch CISOE-A framework for cytology reporting increases efficacy of screening upon standardisation since 1996.

AIM: To describe the effect of introducing the CISOE-A framework for reporting cervical cytology results, including changes in repeat and referral advice in the Netherlands, on the efficacy of the screening programme. Changes in the distribution of cytological results, the detection rate of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) lesions, and the detection rate of squamous cervical carcinoma are reported. METHODS: The results of all gynaecology cytological and histological examinations, as registered in the nationwide database for histopathology and cytopathology (PALGA) from 1990 to 2000, were retrieved from seven laboratories in the greater Amsterdam area. RESULTS: After the introduction of the CISOE-A classification, cytological results with equivocal diagnoses decreased significantly from 11.3% to 2.6%, without an increase in the percentages of moderate dyskaryosis or worse. During the study period, the detection rate of histologically diagnosed high grade CIN lesions increased significantly from 4.1 to 6.4/1000 smears, whereas there was no change in the detection rates of low grade lesions or invasive cervical cancer. CONCLUSIONS: The introduction of the new CISOE-A classification system resulted in a substantial decrease of equivocal results and repeat recommendations, without a decrease in the detection rate of high grade lesions, making the screening programme more efficacious.

High-risk human papillomavirus is present in cytologically false-negative smears: an analysis of "normal" smears preceding CIN2/3.

AIMS: Cervical screening, currently performed by cervical cytology, depends on the timely detection of malignant lesions for its success. The presence of high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) is associated with an increased risk of subsequent high-grade cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia (CIN2/3) and cervical cancer. The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which hrHPV is present in cervical smears with a high a priori chance of being false negative (ie, in normal smears preceding CIN2/3). METHODS: Archival specimens of 187 women with CIN2/3 and preceding normal conventional smears were identified retrospectively. Of these specimens, 144 (77%) had adequate cytological samples for further HPV DNA testing. RESULTS: Of 144 CIN2/3 lesions, preceding normal smears showed hrHPV positivity in 80% of cases. Of the hrHPV-positive smears, 69% were upgraded cytologically at rescreening compared with 24% of hrHPV-negative smears (p<0.001). Upgrading of smears was not associated with specific hrHPV types (p = 0.217). In over 90% of cases, type concordance in smear and CIN2/3 lesion was demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS: hrHPV is present in a high proportion of normal archival smears preceding CIN2/3, and false-negative cytology was highly associated with the presence of hrHPV. This supports the current notion that hrHPV testing can be used as a primary cervical screening tool. If so, hrHPV-positive cervical smears should be carefully examined for cytological abnormalities to reduce false-negative cervical cytology.

High-risk HPV type-specific clearance rates in cervical screening.

We assessed clearance rates of 14 high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) types in hrHPV-positive women with normal cytology and borderline/mild dyskaryosis (BMD) in a population-based cervical screening cohort of 44,102 women. The 6-month hrHPV type-specific clearance rates, that is, clearance of the same type as detected at baseline, in women with normal and BMD smears were 43% (95% confidence interval (CI) 39-47) and 29% (95% CI 24-34), respectively. Corresponding 18-month clearance rates were markedly higher, namely 65% (95% CI 60-69) and 41% (95% CI 36-47), respectively. The lowest clearance rates in women with normal cytology were observed for HPV16, HPV18, HPV31, and HPV33. Significantly reduced 18-month clearance rates at a significance level of 1% were observed for HPV16 (49%, 95% CI 41-59) and HPV31 (50%, 95% CI 39-63) in women with normal cytology, and for HPV16 (19%, 95% CI 12-29) in women with BMD. Among women who did not clear hrHPV, women with HPV16 persistence displayed an increased detection rate of >or=CIN3 (normal P<0.0001; BMD, P=0.005). The type-specific differences in clearance rates indicate the potential value of hrHPV genotyping in screening programs. Our data support close surveillance (i.e. referral directly, or within 6 months) of women with HPV16 and are inconclusive for surveillance of women with HPV18, HPV31, and HPV33. For the other hrHPV-positive women, it seems advisable to adopt a conservative management with a long waiting period, as hrHPV clearance is markedly higher after 18 months than after 6 months and the risk for >or=CIN3 is low.

The contribution of HPV18 to cervical cancer is underestimated using high-grade CIN as a measure of screening efficiency.

In one geographical area, 14 high-risk human papillomavirus types in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN2/3; n=139) and cervical squamous cell carcinoma (SCC; n=84) were analysed. HPV18 was more prevalent in SCC than CIN2/3 (OR 9.8; 95% confidence interval: 2.5-39). Other high-risk types prevalences corresponded in CIN2/3 and SCC. Evaluations using CIN2/3 as a measure of efficiency underestimate the contribution of HPV18 to SCC.

Preferential risk of HPV16 for squamous cell carcinoma and of HPV18 for adenocarcinoma of the cervix compared to women with normal cytology in The Netherlands.

We present the type-distribution of high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) types in women with normal cytology (n=1467), adenocarcinoma in situ (ACIS) (n=61), adenocarcinoma (n=70), and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) (n=83). Cervical adenocarcinoma and ACIS were significantly more frequently associated with HPV18 (OR(MH) 15.0; 95% CI 8.6-26.1 and 21.8; 95% CI 11.9-39.8, respectively) than normal cytology. Human papillomavirus16 was only associated with adenocarcinoma and ACIS after exclusion of HPV18-positive cases (OR(MH) 6.6; 95% CI 2.8-16.0 and 9.4; 95% CI 2.8-31.2, respectively). For SCC, HPV16 prevalence was elevated (OR(MH) 7.0; 95% CI 3.9-12.4) compared to cases with normal cytology, and HPV18 prevalence was only increased after exclusion of HPV16-positive cases (OR(MH) 4.3; 95% CI 1.6-11.6). These results suggest that HPV18 is mainly a risk factor for the development of adenocarcinoma whereas HPV16 is associated with both SCC and adenocarcinoma.

Incidence and survival rate of women with cervical cancer in the Greater Amsterdam area.

To evaluate the effect of population-based cervical cancer screening on the occurrence of cervical cancer in The Netherlands, we investigated the incidence and survival of cervical cancer registered by a cancer registry in the Greater Amsterdam area. The incidence rate of squamous cell carcinoma decreased significantly from 9.2/100,000 women in 1988 to 5.9/100,000 in 2000 (P<0.001). The incidence rate of adenocarcinomas remained stable. After adjustment for age, stage and lymph node involvement, the relative risk of death was 1.6 times higher for patients with adenocarcinomas than for patients with squamous cell carcinoma (95% CI 1.2-2.1). The decreased survival was related to histological type, as the effect remained significant after correction for confounding factors. Over time, the prognosis of women with squamous cell carcinoma improved significantly. No significant change was observed for women diagnosed with adenocarcinoma. These results suggest that the screening programme in The Netherlands as executed in the Greater Amsterdam area is associated with a decreased incidence and increased survival of patients with squamous cell carcinoma, but fails to detect (pre)malignant lesions of adenocarcinoma. Since more than 92% of adenocarcinomas and its precursors contain high-risk HPV, adding HPV testing to cytologic screening might improve the present screening programme in detecting adenocarcinoma and its precursor lesions.