Short communication: Differences in distribution of serotonin receptor subtypes in the mammary gland of sheep, goats, and cows during lactation and involution.

Serotonin receptors (5-HTR) are present in the mammary tissue of mouse, humans, cows, and rats. In these species, serotonin is important for the mammary gland function and lactation performance. The mammary gland expression of 5-HTR in small dairy ruminants has yet to be described. In the present study, primer sequences were developed to amplify 5-HTR (1A, 1D, 1E,1B, 1F, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3a, 4, 5a, 6, and 7) using real-time quantitative PCR for the detection of mRNA expression in mammary tissue of dairy sheep, goats, and cows. The distribution of commonly expressed 5-HTR between the 3 species (1B, 1E, 2A, 2B, 4, and 7) was analyzed in the mammary tissue of late-lactation and dried-off sheep, goats, and cows using immunohistochemical staining. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis showed that the 3 studied species expressed receptors 5-HTR1B, 1E, 2A, 2B, 4, and 7. Goats and sheep expressed 5-HTR1D and 5a; 5-HTR1A and 1F were expressed only in sheep. The mammary epithelial cells were positively stained for all the studied receptors by immunohistochemistry (5-HTR1B, 1E, 2A, 2B, 4, and 7). The endothelial cells of blood vessels were positively stained for 5-HTR1B, 2A, 2B, and 7 in all the species. Additionally, 5-HTR1E was present in cow endothelium. The myoepithelial cells stained positively for 5-HTR1E in all the species, and 5-HTR4 myoepithelial staining was present only in cows and sheep. Between the lactating and dried-off mammary glands, the location of 5-HTR in the epithelial cells changed from a cytoplasmic reaction in lactating udders to a reaction in the apical region in dry udders. These results showed that the distribution of 5-HTR subtypes in the mammary gland of dairy ruminants vary among species, tissue type, and stage of gland development. These findings warrant future studies aimed at understanding whether the differences in 5-HTR subtype expression and location accounts for the differences in milk secretion and lactocyte activity among cows, goats, and sheep.

Invited review: Current production trends, farm structures, and economics of the dairy sheep and goat sectors.

Dairy small ruminants account for approximately 21% of all sheep and goats in the world, produce around 3.5% of the world's milk, and are mainly located in subtropical-temperate areas of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Dairy sheep are concentrated around the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions, where their dairy products are typical ingredients of the human diet. Dairy goats are concentrated in low-income, food-deficit countries of the Indian subcontinent, where their products are a key food source, but are also present in high-income, technologically developed countries. This review evaluates the status of the dairy sheep and goat sectors in the world, with special focus on the commercially and technically developed industries in France, Greece, Italy, and Spain (FGIS). Dairy small ruminants account for a minor part of the total agricultural output in France, Italy, and Spain (0.9 to 1.8%) and a larger part in Greece (8.8%). In FGIS, the dairy sheep industry is based on local breeds and crossbreeds raised under semi-intensive and intensive systems and is concentrated in a few regions in these countries. Average flock size varies from small to medium (140 to 333 ewes/farm), and milk yield from low to medium (85 to 216 L/ewe), showing substantial room for improvement. Most sheep milk is sold to industries and processed into traditional cheese types, many of which are Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO) cheeses for gourmet and export markets (e.g., Pecorino, Manchego, and Roquefort). By comparing break-even milk price among FGIS countries, we observed the following: (1) most Greek and French dairy sheep farms were unprofitable, with the exception of the intensive Chios farms of Greece; (2) milk price was aligned with cost of production in Italy; and (3) profitable farms coexisted with unprofitable farms in Spain. In FGIS, dairy goat production is based on local breeds raised under more extensive systems than sheep. Compared with sheep, average dairy goat herds are smaller (36 to 190 does/farm) but milk yield is greater (153 to 589 L/doe), showing room for improvement. Goat milk is mainly processed on-farm into dairy products for national markets, but some PDO goat milk cheeses (e.g., Murcia al Vino) are exported. Processed goat milk is sold for local human consumption or dehydrated for export. Mixed sheep-goat (e.g., Feta) and cow-sheep-goat milk cheeses are common in many countries. Strategies to improve the dairy sheep and goat sectors in these 4 countries are proposed and discussed.

Goat domestication and breeding: a jigsaw of historical, biological and molecular data with missing pieces.

Domestic goats (Capra hircus) are spread across the five continents with a census of 1 billion individuals. The worldwide population of goats descends from a limited number of bezoars (Capra aegagrus) domesticated 10 000 YBP (years before the present) in the Fertile Crescent. The extraordinary adaptability and hardiness of goats favoured their rapid spread over the Old World, reaching the Iberian Peninsula and Southern Africa 7000 YBP and 2000 YBP respectively. Molecular studies have revealed one major mitochondrial haplogroup A and five less frequent haplogroups B, C, D, F and G. Moreover, the analysis of autosomal and Y-chromosome markers has evidenced an appreciable geographic differentiation. The implementation of new molecular technologies, such as whole-genome sequencing and genome-wide genotyping, allows for the exploration of caprine diversity at an unprecedented scale, thus providing new insights into the evolutionary history of goats. In spite of a number of pitfalls, the characterization of the functional elements of the goat genome is expected to play a key role in understanding the genetic determination of economically relevant traits. Genomic selection and genome editing also hold great potential, particularly for improving traits that cannot be modified easily by traditional selection.

A mitochondrial analysis reveals distinct founder effect signatures in Canarian and Balearic goats.

In the course of human migrations, domestic animals often have been translocated to islands with the aim of assuring food availability. These founder events are expected to leave a genetic footprint that may be recognised nowadays. Herewith, we have examined the mitochondrial diversity of goat populations living in the Canarian and Balearic archipelagos. Median-joining network analysis produced very distinct network topologies for these two populations. Indeed, a majority of Canarian goats shared a single ancestral haplotype that segregated in all sampled islands, suggesting a single founder effect followed by a stepping-stone pattern of diffusion. This haplotype also was present in samples collected from archaeological assemblies at Gran Canaria and Lanzarote, making evident its widespread distribution in ancient times. In stark contrast, goats from Majorca and Ibiza did not share any mitochondrial haplotypes, indicating the occurrence of two independent founder events. Furthermore, in Majorcan goats, we detected the segregation of the mitochondrial G haplogroup that has only been identified in goats from Egypt, Iran and Turkey. This finding suggests the translocation of Asian and/or African goats to Majorca, possibly as a consequence of the Phoenician and Carthaginian colonisations of this island.

The effect of colostrum source (goat vs. sheep) and timing of the first colostrum feeding (2h vs. 14h after birth) on body weight and immune status of artificially reared newborn lambs.

Several factors can affect lamb body weight (BW) and immune status during the first days of life, including colostrum source and timing of the first colostrum feeding. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of colostrum source (goat or sheep) and timing of the first colostrum feeding (2 or 14h after birth) on lamb BW and immune status. In this study, 40 lambs were removed from their dams at birth and randomly assigned into 4 groups of 10 lambs each. Lambs were subsequently fed at 2 or 14h after birth with goat or sheep colostrum. Blood samples and BW recording were performed before feeding. Blood plasma was used to measure the immunoglobulin concentration (IgG and IgM), chitotriosidase activity, and complement system activity (total and alternative pathways). In general, no differences in any of the measured variables were observed among the 4 groups, indicating that neither colostrum source nor timing of the first colostrum feeding had an effect on these variables. These findings may improve management on lamb farms that raise animals under artificial conditions, because our results indicate that it is not necessary to feed colostrum to lambs immediately after birth and that goat colostrum may be used to feed newborn lambs.

Technical note: Advantages and limitations of authenticating Palmera goat dairy products by pyrosequencing the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene.

Inferring the breed of origin of dairy products can be achieved through molecular analysis of genetic markers with a population-specific pattern of segregation. The goal of the current work was to generate such markers in goats by resequencing several pigmentation genes [melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KIT), tyrosinase (TYR), and tyrosinase-related protein 2 (TYRP2)]. This experiment revealed 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), including 5 missense mutations and 1 nonsense mutation. These markers were genotyped in 560 goats from 18 breeds originally from Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands, and North Africa. Although the majority of SNP segregated at moderate frequencies in all populations (including 2 additional markers that were used as a source of information), we identified a c.764G>A SNP in MC1R that displayed highly divergent allelic frequencies in the Palmera breed compared with the Majorera and Tinerfeña breeds from the Canary Islands. Thus, we optimized a pyrosequencing-based technique that allowed us to estimate, very accurately, the allele frequencies of this marker in complex DNA mixtures from different individuals. Once validated, we applied this method to generating breed-specific DNA profiles that made it possible to detect fraudulent cheeses in which Palmero cheese was manufactured with milk from Majorera goats. One limitation of this approach, however, is that it cannot be used to detect illegal manufacturing where Palmero dairy products are produced by mixing milk from Palmera and Majorera goats, because the c.764G>A SNP segregates in both breeds.

Mitochondrial analysis sheds light on the origin of hair sheep.

A total of 180 mtDNA sequences from hair Caribbean (93), West African (73) and Canarian-wooled (14) sheep were analysed to shed light on the origin of hair sheep. A comparison of 360 Iberian sheep sequences retrieved from GenBank was performed to assess a possible European origin of the Caribbean hair sheep. These 180 sequences gave 48 different haplotypes (16 in Caribbean sheep). All Caribbean and Canarian-wooled sequences and 91.8% of the West African samples belonged to haplogroup B. The sheep analysed showed wide haplotypic identity. Caribbean sheep shared roughly two-thirds of their samples with Canarian-wooled and West African samples, respectively. Principal component analysis showed that the Caribbean and the Canarian-wooled sheep clustered together. Additional analyses showed that hair and Iberian sheep had wide genetic identity. It was not possible to ascertain a single Canarian, African or European origin of the Caribbean hair sheep using mtDNA markers only. European, African and Caribbean hair sheep maternal genetic backgrounds likely result from related domestication events.

Short communication: Effects of milking frequency on udder morphology, milk partitioning, and milk quality in 3 dairy goat breeds.

Thirty-six dairy goats of 3 breeds (Majorera, Tinerfeña, and Palmera) in mid lactation (124 ± 8 d in milk) were subjected unilaterally to once (× 1) or twice daily milking (× 2) for 5 wk to evaluate udder morphology, milk partitioning, and somatic cell count. Majorera and Palmera goats presented the highest and lowest udder depth values, respectively, whereas the differences between initial and final cistern-floor and teat-floor distances were not affected by milking frequency or breed factors. Cisternal and alveolar milk percentages were similar between × 1 and × 2 in the studied breeds. Milking frequency did not affect milk composition in the cisternal fraction, suggesting a greater transfer of milk from the alveoli to the cistern during early udder filling. However, milking frequency caused diverse changes in the milk composition in the alveolar fraction, especially in fat, lactose, and total solids contents. No udder halves presented clinical mastitis during the experimental period, suggesting that × 1 does not impair udder health and indicating that the studied breeds are adapted to this milking frequency.

Polymorphism of the goat agouti signaling protein gene and its relationship with coat color in Italian and Spanish breeds.

Agouti signaling protein (ASIP) is one of the key players in the modulation of hair pigmentation in mammals. Binding to the melanocortin 1 receptor, ASIP induces the synthesis of phaeomelanin, associated with reddish brown, red, tan, and yellow coats. We have sequenced 2.8 kb of the goat ASIP gene in 48 individuals and identified two missense (Cys126Gly and Val128Gly) and two intronic polymorphisms. In silico analysis revealed that the Cys126Gly substitution may cause a structural change by disrupting a highly conserved disulfide bond. We studied its segregation in 12 Spanish and Italian goat breeds (N = 360) with different pigmentation patterns and found striking differences in the frequency of the putative loss-of-function Gly(126) allele (Italian 0.43, Spanish Peninsular 0.08), but we did not observe a clear association with coat color. This suggests that the frequency of this putative loss-of-function allele has evolved under the influence of demographic rather than selection factors in goats from these two geographical areas.

Sodium dodecyl sulfate reduces bacterial contamination in goat colostrum without negative effects on immune passive transfer in goat kids.

To investigate the use of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as a biocide on goat colostrum, 2 experiments were performed. In the first, 20 goat colostrum samples were divided into 3 aliquots. A different treatment was performed on each aliquot: pasteurization (56°C, 30 min) or addition of SDS to a final concentration of either 0.1 or 1% (36°C, 10 min). Immunoglobulin G and colony-forming units were evaluated before and after treatment. Both pasteurization and treatment with 1% SDS significantly reduced the colony-forming units in colostrum. Treatment with 0.1% SDS was not effective at reducing the colony-forming units in colostrum. The IgG concentration of pasteurized colostrum was significantly lower than that of untreated colostrum, whereas treatment with 1% SDS did not affect the colostrum IgG concentration. In the second experiment, the effects of SDS colostrum treatment on immune passive transfer were evaluated. Forty goat kids were fed either refrigerated colostrum or colostrum treated with 1% SDS twice daily for 2 d. Blood samples were obtained at birth and every day for 5 d. IgG, IgM, and IgA were measured in blood serum to monitor the passive immune transfer process. Creatinine, glucose, total cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen, bilirubin, and aspartate transaminase were also monitored to evaluate the health of kids. No differences in serum IgG, IgM, IgA, creatinine, glucose, total cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen, bilirubin, or aspartate transaminase levels were observed between groups. Our findings indicate that SDS is an efficient colostrum biocide that, unlike pasteurization, does not affect immune passive transfer or goat kid health.

Mitochondrial DNA diversity and origins of South and Central American goats.

We have analysed the genetic diversity of South and Central American (SCA) goats by partially sequencing the mitochondrial control region of 93 individuals with a wide geographical distribution. Nucleotide and haplotype diversities reached values of 0.020 +/- 0.00081 and 0.963 +/- 0.0012 respectively. We have also observed a rather weak phylogeographic structure, with almost 69% of genetic variation included in the within-breed variance component. The topology of a median-joining network analysis including 286 European, Iberian, Atlantic and SCA mitochondrial sequences was very complex, with most of the haplotypes forming part of independent small clusters. SCA sequences showed a scattered distribution throughout the network, and clustering with Spanish and Portuguese sequences occurred only occasionally, not allowing the distinguishing of a clear Iberian signature. Conversely, we found a prominent cluster including Canarian, Chilean, Argentinian and Bolivian mitochondrial haplotypes. This result was independently confirmed by constructing a Bayesian phylogenetic tree (posterior probability of 0.97). Sharing of mitochondrial haplotypes by SCA and Canarian goats suggests that goat populations from the Atlantic archipelagos, where Spanish and Portuguese ships en route to the New World used to stow food and supplies, participated in the foundation of SCA caprine breeds.

Effects of newborn characteristics and length of colostrum feeding period on passive immune transfer in goat kids.

Majorera goat kids (n = 200) were used to evaluate the effects of litter size, birth body weight, sex, and suckling duration on serum IgG concentrations. Kids were assigned to 1 of 3 experimental groups: litter size and sex were equally distributed in each group. In the first group, kids (n = 67) stayed with their dams for 24 h; in the second group, kids (n = 66) stayed with their dams for 48 h; and in the third group, kids (n = 67) stayed with their dams for 120 h. Blood samples were obtained every 24 h for 5 d, and serum IgG concentration was measured using radial immunodiffusion. In litter sizes of 1 to 2 kids, IgG blood serum concentration was significantly higher (18.30 +/- 5.40 mg/mL) than in litters of 3 kids (9.85 +/- 4.23 mg/mL). Kid sex did not affect IgG blood serum concentrations. Suckling duration did not affect kid serum IgG concentrations. In conclusion, kids with low birth body weight (<2.8 kg) or from litters of 3 may need special attention. If newborn goat kids are allowed to suckle colostrum for at least 24 h from their dams, this seems to be sufficient time to ingest enough IgG from colostrum to achieve an adequate serum IgG concentration and passive immune protection to avoid failure of passive immune transfer.

Effect of colostrum immunoglobulin concentration on immunity in Majorera goat kids.

The aim of the research was to evaluate the effects of immunoglobulin G (IgG) colostrum concentration on goat kid immune status when the total amount of IgG fed was constant. Majorera goat kids (n = 56) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups, and kids received 4 g of IgG per kg of body weight of atomized colostrum at 4 different IgG concentrations: 20 (AC-20), 40 (AC-40), 60 (AC-60), and 80 (AC-80) mg/mL. Blood samples were obtained on d 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 postpartum. Immunoglobulin G, IgA, and IgM plasma concentrations, apparent efficiency of absorption of IgG, plasma chitotriosidase activity, plasma complement activity, and plasma proteinogram were measured. Plasma IgG and IgM concentrations were highest on d 1 in AC-80 animals, and IgA plasma concentration was lower in AC-20 than in AC-80. The apparent efficiency of absorption was higher in AC-80 (24.4%) than in the other treatment groups (by an average of 13.8%). Chitotriosidase plasma activity on d 5 (1,488 nmol/mL per hour) was higher than on d 0 and 1 (average of 1,183 nmol/mL per hour). There were no effects of colostrum IgG concentration on complement activity and plasma protein distribution, but gamma-globulin and alpha-globulin were lower on d 0 than on d 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Increasing the immunoglobulin concentration in colostrum using atomized colostrum improves the immunoglobulin absorption at the same amount of immunoglobulin fed.

Farm and factory production of goat cheese whey results in distinct chemical composition.

To analyze differences in fat and protein content in cheese whey (CW) manufactured in cheese-making factories and farms, goat CW samples were obtained from 60 cheese-making farms and 20 cheese factories. Gross composition of samples was analyzed by using an MIRIS device (MIRIS Inc., Uppsala, Sweden), whey protein composition was subjected to electrophoretic analysis, and fatty acid composition was analyzed via gas chromatography. Goat CW from farms contained higher dry matter content (70.6 vs. 50.8 g/L, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) and a higher fat percentage (10.5 vs. 1.2% over dry matter, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) than CW from cheese factories. Analysis of individual proteins showed that CW from farms contained higher concentrations of lactoferrin (0.4 vs. 0.2 mg/mL of CW, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) and caprine serum albumin (0.6 vs. 0.4 mg/mL of whey, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) than CW from cheese factories. No differences were observed in the fatty acid profile. The main fatty acids present in goat CW were C16:0, C18:1, C14:0, and C18:0. Thus, the origin of CW affects gross composition and the protein profile, but not the fatty acid profile.

Chitotriosidase activity in goat blood and colostrum.

Chitotriosidase (ChT) activity has not been investigated in ruminants, and therefore, we studied this activity in blood and colostrum of 25 pregnant goats and 60 goat kids. Blood samples were taken from pregnant goats at 3, 2, and 1 d prepartum; at partum; and at 1, 2, 3, and 4 d postpartum. Colostrum samples were obtained by machine-milking at partum and 1, 2, 3, and 4 d postpartum. Goat kid blood was collected at birth and every 7 d thereafter until goats kids were 56 d old. The ChT activity ranged from 2,368 to 3,350 nmol/ mL per hour in goat blood serum, and no statistical differences were detected through time. However, activity tended to decrease from 3 d prepartum to 2 d post-partum. Colostrum ChT activity was 3,912 nmol/mL per hour and 465 nmol/mL per hour on the day of delivery and 4 d postpartum, respectively. Colostrum ChT activity was significantly higher at partum than at any other time. The ChT activity in colostrum was significantly greater at 1 d postpartum than at 2, 3, and 4 d postpartum. Chitotriosidase activity did not differ in colostrum collected on d 2, 3, and 4 postpartum. Chitotriosidase activity in goat kid blood serum ranged from 2,664 to 9,231 nmol/mL per hour at birth and 49 d of life, respectively. Chitotriosidase activity in the blood serum increased with age: at birth, activity was significantly less than at 28, 35, 42, 49, and 56 d postpartum. The maximum ChT activity in blood serum was observed at 49 d postpartum. Activity in 49-d-old kids was significantly greater than that observed in kids at 0, 7, and 14 d postpartum.

Short communication: apoptosis regulates passive immune transfer in newborn kids.

Ten newborn kids were used to evaluate the relationship between apoptosis and passive immune transfer in neonatal enterocytes. Kids were slaughtered in groups of 2 at birth, 1, 2, 3, or 60 d postpartum, and samples of duodenal epithelium collected from each animal. Samples were fixed, dehydrated, and embedded in paraffin wax. Sections were assessed for apoptotic cells and immunostained for IgG. Our results suggest that IgG absorption is mediated by apoptotic enterocytes. Thus, delaying apoptosis may improve the success of passive immune transfer.

Expression patterns and genetic variation of the ovine skeletal muscle transcriptome of sheep from five Spanish meat breeds.

The goal of the current study is to analyse the gene expression profile of the ovine skeletal muscle as well as to characterize the genetic variation of transcripts expressed in such tissue. This aim has been achieved by sequencing the longissimus dorsi transcriptomes of 50 sheep distributed in five pools representing the Canaria de Pelo, Roja Mallorquina, Gallega, Xisqueta and Ripollesa Spanish autochthonous breeds. Approximately, 363 million reads per pool have been produced and 71.9-82.9% have been successfully mapped to the ovine genome in a paired-end mode (2 × 75 bp). The 200 most expressed muscle transcripts (≈1% of the total transcript count) account for 51% (Canaria de Pelo) to 67% (Gallega) of the total ovine skeletal muscle mRNA expression. These highly expressed genes play key roles in pathways related with striated muscle contraction, gluconeogenesis, glycolysis, citric acid cycle and respiratory electron transport. RNA-Sequencing of muscle transcripts has also revealed that ~72% of the SNPs detected with this approach are shared by at least two pools, and 10% of them segregate in the five pools under analysis. Most of the substitutions detected by RNA-Seq are synonymous or missense and only a minority are predicted to have consequences on protein function.

Short communication: Addition of milk replacer to colostrum whey: effect on immunoglobulin G passive transfer in Majorera kids.

Forty-two Majorera kids (21 males and 21 females) were assigned to 3 groups, a colostrum group (C), a colostrum whey group (CW), and a colostrum whey plus milk replacer group (CWMR). All kids were fed twice on the first day and received 4 g of IgG/kg of body weight. No differences were found in serum IgG among the different treatments. Kid serum IgG concentrations on d 2 were 14.57, 17.25, and 13.32 mg/mL in the C, CW, and CWMR group, respectively. Labor time per animal was higher in the C and CW treatments than in the CWMR group (24.2 +/- 2.3, 20.9 +/- 3.4, and 16.1 +/- 1.5 min, respectively). This new management system may decrease labor costs during the colostrum feeding period.

Effect of heat and high-pressure treatments on microbiological quality and immunoglobulin G stability of caprine colostrum.

Caprine colostrums (6 batches) were subjected to heat (56 degrees C for 60 min and 63 degrees C for 30 min) and high-pressure (400 and 500 MPa for 10 min at 20 degrees C) treatments at laboratory scale, and analyses of the main microbial groups and the extent of IgG denaturation (determined by immunodiffusion) were performed. Overall mean microbial values in raw colostrums were: total count, 5.55 log cfu/mL; Enterobacteriaceae, 2.64 log cfu/mL; lactococci, 5.41 log cfu/mL; lactobacilli, 2.34 log cfu/mL; and enterococci, 4.06 log cfu/mL. Neither Salmonella spp. nor Listeria monocytogenes were detected, whereas coagulase-positive staphylococci were found in various colostrum samples with an overall mean of 1.02 log cfu/mL. Heat and high-pressure treatments significantly reduced total count (1.47 log), lactococci (1.45 log), enterococci (2.47 log), and Enterobacteriaceae, whereas lactobacilli and coagulase-positive staphylococci counts were reduced to undetectable levels, but differences between technological treatments were not statistically significant. High-pressure treatments were as efficient in reducing the bacterial population as were heat pasteurization treatments: 95.50 and 96.93% for pressure treatments of 400 and 500 MPa, and 91.61 and 97.59% for heat treatments of 56 degrees C for 60 min and 63 degrees C for 30 min, respectively. All treatments assayed produced a reduction in colostrum IgG concentration (27.53, 23.58, 23.33, 22.09, and 17.06 mg/mL for raw, heat-treated at 56 degrees C for 60 min or 63 degrees C for 30 min, and pressure-treated at 400 and 500 MPa, respectively), but differences were only observed between raw colostrums and those pressure-treated at 500 MPa. This laboratory-scale study indicated that 20- to 30-mL volumes of goat colostrum could be heated and pressure-treated (400 MPa) to produce hygienic colostrum without affecting IgG concentration.

Short communication: Correlations between udder morphology, milk yield, and milking ability with different milking frequencies in dairy goats.

Tinerfeñ a breed goats were assigned to 2 experimental herds and milked once (n = 28) or twice (n = 24) daily to study correlations between udder morphology, milk yield, and milking ability during the middle stage of the first lactation. Pearson correlation coefficients were significantly higher between yield and measures of udder globulousness (udder volume, r = 0.79 and r = 0.59; perimeter of insertion of the udder, r = 0.47 and r = 0.37; distance between teats, r = 0.77 and r = 0.28, for goats milked once and twice daily, respectively) than for length parameters (cistern floor distance, r = 0.40 and r = -0.29; udder depth, r = -0.20 and r = 0.20). The globulousness of the udder was correlated with easier milking ability, as shown by milk fractioning (r = 0.49 to 0.70) and milk flow measures (r = 0.32 to 0.49). The results showed that the globulousness of the udder is more important than length measurements in assessing milk yield and milking ability.