Bat ASC2 suppresses inflammasomes and ameliorates inflammatory diseases.

Bats are special in their ability to live long and host many emerging viruses. Our previous studies showed that bats have altered inflammasomes, which are central players in aging and infection. However, the role of inflammasome signaling in combating inflammatory diseases remains poorly understood. Here, we report bat ASC2 as a potent negative regulator of inflammasomes. Bat ASC2 is highly expressed at both the mRNA and protein levels and is highly potent in inhibiting human and mouse inflammasomes. Transgenic expression of bat ASC2 in mice reduced the severity of peritonitis induced by gout crystals and ASC particles. Bat ASC2 also dampened inflammation induced by multiple viruses and reduced mortality of influenza A virus infection. Importantly, it also suppressed SARS-CoV-2-immune-complex-induced inflammasome activation. Four key residues were identified for the gain of function of bat ASC2. Our results demonstrate that bat ASC2 is an important negative regulator of inflammasomes with therapeutic potential in inflammatory diseases.

Erratum: E3 Ubiquitin ligase ZNRF4 negatively regulates NOD2 signalling and induces tolerance to MDP.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15865.

E3 Ubiquitin ligase ZNRF4 negatively regulates NOD2 signalling and induces tolerance to MDP.

Optimal regulation of the innate immune receptor nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) is essential for controlling bacterial infections and inflammatory disorders. Chronic NOD2 stimulation induces non-responsiveness to restimulation, termed NOD2-induced tolerance. Although the levels of the NOD2 adaptor, RIP2, are reported to regulate both acute and chronic NOD2 signalling, how RIP2 levels are modulated is unclear. Here we show that ZNRF4 induces K48-linked ubiquitination of RIP2 and promotes RIP2 degradation. A fraction of RIP2 localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where it interacts with ZNRF4 under either 55 unstimulated and muramyl dipeptide-stimulated conditions. Znrf4 knockdown monocytes have sustained nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation, and Znrf4 knockdown mice have reduced NOD2-induced tolerance and more effective control of Listeria monocytogenes infection. Our results thus demonstrate E3-ubiquitin ligase ZNRF4-mediated RIP2 degradation as a negative regulatory mechanism of NOD2-induced NF-κB, cytokine and anti-bacterial responses in vitro and in vivo, and identify a ZNRF4-RIP2 axis of fine-tuning NOD2 signalling to promote protective host immunity.

Hepatitis B virus-like particles access major histocompatibility class I and II antigen presentation pathways in primary dendritic cells.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) represent high density displays of viral proteins that efficiently trigger immunity. VLPs composed of the small hepatitis B virus envelope protein (HBsAgS) are useful vaccine platforms that induce humoral and cellular immune responses. Notably, however, some studies suggest HBsAgS VLPs impair dendritic cell (DC) function. Here we investigated HBsAgS VLP interaction with DC subsets and antigen access to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II antigen presentation pathways in primary DCs. HBsAgS VLPs impaired plasmacytoid DC (pDC) interferon alpha (IFNα) production in response to CpG in vitro, but did not alter conventional DC (cDC) or pDC phenotype when administered in vivo. To assess cellular immune responses, HBsAgS VLPs were generated containing the ovalbumin (OVA) model epitopes OVA(257-264) and OVA(323-339) to access MHCI and MHCII antigen presentation pathways, respectively; both in vitro and following immunisation in vivo. HBsAgS VLP-OVA(257-264) elicited CTL responses in vivo that were not enhanced by inclusion of an additional MHCII helper epitope. HBsAgS VLP-OVA(257-264) administered in vivo was cross-presented by CD8(+) DCs, but not CD8(-) DCs. Therefore, HBsAgS VLPs can deliver antigen to both MHCI and MHCII antigen presentation pathways in primary DCs and promote cytotoxic and helper T cell priming despite their suppressive effect on pDCs.

Modulation of the immunogenicity of virus-like particles composed of mutant hepatitis B virus envelope subunits.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are non-infectious subviral protein complexes, which possess structural features identical or closely related to infectious virions. They are utilized as delivery tools for immunologically relevant antigenic sequences. In order to investigate whether mutant subunits can modulate the VLP immunogenicity, comparative immunization studies with wild-type and non-native VLPs were performed. To determine whether disulfide bonding impacts on the immunogenicity of hepatitis B virus envelope proteins (HBsAg), mutant HBsAg subunits with single, double and triple cysteine residue substitutions were generated. The mutant proteins were expressed in cell culture, secretion competent non-native VLPs generated, followed by immunization studies in mice to measure the cellular immune response. The reduced ability of mutant HBsAg proteins to form disulfide bonds does not interfere with their ability to assemble into secretion competent VLPs. Depending on specific cysteine to alanine changes, VLPs could be generated with or without an increased ratio of monomeric versus dimeric/oligomeric subunits compared to wild-type VLPs. The utilization of non-native VLPs resulted in enhanced cellular immune responses and does not seem to depend on the ratio between monomeric or dimeric/oligomeric subunits. Comparative immunization studies strongly indicate that changes in the disulfide bonding modulate the VLP immunogenicity most likely due to structural changes. We hypothesize that structural features have evolved with reduced immunogenicity to evade the constraints imposed by the immune system. Altering VLP conformation may represent an attractive strategy to modulate antigen processing resulting in an enhanced immune response and/or a changed hierarchy of epitope presentation.

Delivery of a foreign epitope by sharing amino acid residues with the carrier matrix.

A broad range of structural viral proteins has the ability to assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs). Under the condition that modified subunits are still competent to assemble into VLPs, they are epitope delivery platforms suitable for vaccination purposes. The insertion of foreign sequences can be detrimental for the formation of chimeric VLPs as a result of misfolded subunit proteins. Hence, a strategy was adopted to screen for locations allowing the use of shared residues between the wildtype subunit sequence and the foreign insert. The insertion of a cysteine-containing sequence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope protein 2 (E2) without adding an additional cysteine residue retained the ability of recombinant small hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg-S) to form secretion competent VLPs. A cysteine residue shared by the insert and the template protein avoided the formation of non-native disulfide bonds, and allowed the formation of VLPs. The chimeric HBsAg-S VLPs were similar to wildtype VLPs in density exposing the inserted foreign epitope and being immunogenic. Overall, the use of shared sequences between the insert and the subunit will facilitate the design of chimeric VLPs carrying multiple epitopes.

Chimeric virus-like particles for the delivery of an inserted conserved influenza A-specific CTL epitope.

The small hepatitis B virus surface antigens (HBsAg-S) have the ability to self-assemble with host-derived lipids into empty non-infectious virus-like particles (VLPs). HBsAg-S VLPs are the sole component of the licensed hepatitis B vaccine, and they are a useful delivery platform for foreign epitopes. To develop VLPs capable of transporting foreign cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes, HBsAg-S specific CTL epitopes at various sites were substituted with a conserved CTL epitope derived from the influenza matrix protein. Depending on the insertion site, the introduction of the MHC class I A2.1-restricted influenza epitope was compatible with the secretion competence of HBsAg-S indicating that chimeric VLPs were assembled. Immunizations of transgenic HHDII mice with chimeric VLPs induced anti-influenza CTL responses proving that the inserted foreign epitope can be correctly processed and cross-presented. Chimeric VLPs in the absence of adjuvant were able to induce memory T cell responses, which could be recalled by influenza virus infections in the mouse model system. The ability of chimeric HBsAg-S VLPs to induce anti-foreign CTL responses and also with the proven ability to induce humoral immune responses constitute a highly versatile platform for the delivery of selected multiple epitopes to target disease associated infectious agents.