Could formaldehyde induce mutagenic and cytotoxic effects in buccal epithelial cells during anatomy classes?

BACKGROUND: Due to increased formaldehyde exposure, carcinogenic to humans, several researches have been studying the potential toxicity and the safe levels for human beings. The aim of this study was to investigate mutagenicity and cytotoxicity in buccal epithelial exfoliated cells (BEC) of students subjected to formaldehyde (FA) during anatomy classes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: BEC were collected periodically from 17 volunteers of undergraduate programs, who had participated in practical anatomy classes, before and after FA exposure. Cells were stained according to Feulgen method and then micronucleus test was applied. A total of 1,500 cells were assessed per individual in this study for the micronucleus frequency and other parameters of cytotoxicity. RESULTS: There was statistically significant increase in number of micronucleated BEC after FA exposure (after 1 month p=.034 and after 3.5 months p=.017). However, FA exposure caused no significant increase in other nuclear alterations closely related to cytotoxicity (p≥.05). CONCLUSIONS: FA induced mutagenicity during anatomy classes. Cell death increased, but it was not statistically significant. Efforts have to be made to improve air quality and reduce exposures during anatomy classes.

P300 delay and attenuation in schizophrenia: reversal by neuroleptic medication.

BACKGROUND: P300 amplitude reduction in schizophrenia has been found by many investigators, but P300 latency generally has been reported to be normal; however, conflicting findings are present in the literature, and interpretation has been confounded by medication effects and methodological differences. METHODS: This study used a standard auditory oddball paradigm to compare the latency, amplitude, and topographic distribution of P300s in neuroleptic-free schizophrenic patients with those of healthy controls. The patients then were treated for 6 weeks with either remoxipride or haloperidol, and their P300s were reassessed. RESULTS: P300s were attenuated and delayed among neuroleptic-free patients. There was no evidence of peak lateralization or amplitude asymmetry over temporal areas. Subsequent neuroleptic medication normalized P300 latencies and increased P300 amplitudes, but the latter remained below normal limits over all except frontal areas. There were no correlations between P300 latency or amplitude and clinical symptomatology either before or after treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The finding of a P300 delay in neuroleptic-free schizophrenics that is normalized by neuroleptic medication has not been reported previously. Neuroleptic effects on P300 amplitude and latency appear to be independent of effects on clinical symptoms, and cannot be attributed to anticholinergic activity.

Separate channels mediate prestimulus facilitation and suppression of rabbit nictitating membrane reflex.

Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying prestimulus-induced facilitation and suppression of reflex amplitude were investigated by using the rabbit nictitating membrane reflex (NMR). Experiment 1 was conducted to investigate the retractor bulbi motoneuron pool in the region of the abducens nucleus. Direct electrical stimulation of the pool caused NM extension, and recordings from the motoneurons showed greatly increased activity under conditions of NMR amplitude facilitation. Decreased motoneuron activity was conspicuously absent under conditions of NMR amplitude suppression. In Experiment 2, the retractor palpebrae tertiae motoneuron pool of the nucleus centralis caudalis was investigated. Direct electrical stimulation of the pool caused NM retraction, and recordings from the motoneurons showed increased activity under conditions of NMR amplitude suppression, but not under conditions of NMR amplitude facilitation. A quantitative model constructed from these neurophysiological results was shown to generate predictions in close accord with directly measured NMR amplitudes under both suppressive and facilitative conditions. From these results it appears that the behaviorally independent processes of NMR amplitude facilitation and suppression are mediated by anatomically independent motoneuron pools and output pathways showing no evidence of central inhibition but opposing each other peripherally through simultaneous excitation of antagonistic muscles.

Taste potentiation of poisoned odor by temporal contiguity.

The synergistic interaction between odor and taste in flavor-toxicosis conditioning was tested in two experiments. The temporal interval between a 2-min odor and a 2-min taste was varied for thirsty rats licking at a water spout. In the first experiment, taste was presented at time zero, and odor was presented at -10, -1, 0, 1 and 10 min to independent groups in a simple compartment. In the second experiment, taste was presented at 0, and odor was presented at -5, -2, and 0 min in a "wind tunnel" apparatus. The results indicated that odor alone is an ineffective conditioned stimulus for a toxic unconditioned stimulus under our conditions, simultaneous (0-min) presentation of odor with taste potentiates the odor component so that it becomes more effective than the taste component, a 2-min interval between odor and taste attenuates potentiation, and a 5-min interval disrupts the effect, and the interaction in asymmetrical, that is, odor has no such systematic effect on the conditioning of taste.

Visual response latencies in temporal lobe structures as a function of stimulus information load.

In a monkey performing a visual delayed matching-to-sample task, units and visual evoked potentials (VEPs) were sampled from the inferior bank of the superior temporal sulcus (STS; Areas TEa and IPa), the hippocampus, and the presubiculum. VEP latencies indicated that flash information--signaling the imminent presentation of a color sample to be retained--reached the presubiculum and the hippocampus substantially earlier than the STS. In contrast, color sample VEP latencies did not differ between sites, arriving at all sites appreciably later than flash VEPs. Unit data indicated generally excitatory responses to both stimuli at all sites and net inhibition during the interstimulus interval separating flash from sample. As with VEPs, unit latencies to flash were shorter than to sample stimuli. The alerting flash data imply activation of the hippocampus occurring before activation of the STS cortex, whereas the coincident arrival of color sample information suggests temporal synchronization between these structures.

HIV and the brain: evidence of early involvement and progressive damage.

AIDS is often accompanied by progressive encephalopathy and 'subcortical' dementia, but there is uncertainty regarding how early the brain involvement may begin in the course of HIV infection. This study used a cognitive auditory 'oddball' paradigm to elicit sensory and cognitive event related potential (ERP) components from healthy controls and from patients at different stages of HIV infection. Sensory component latencies did not differ between groups, but cognitive components showed progressive delays corresponding to increasingly severe clinical stages of HIV infection. The earliest changes were found among asymptomatic HIV + patients, suggesting that this test is a sensitive indicator of early subclinical CNS damage. In contrast, neither frequency analysis nor nonlinear dynamical analysis of the EEG showed differences between healthy controls and patients.

The elgiloy microelectrode: fabrication techniques and characteristics.

A glass-insulated microelectrode made from elgiloy orthodontic wire, a stainless cobalt-chromium alloy containing 15% iron, was described by Suzuki and Azuma (1976). Here, we detail a set of modified electrode fabrication procedures, including techniques for hardening and etching the wire, specifying the size, geometry and exposure of the tip, and adjusting tip impedance over a wide range. Accurate insulation of the tip with molten solder glass produces microelectrodes suitable for extracellular recording from single or multiple units and simultaneous recording of evoked potentials. The finished electrode is tough enough to withstand multiple penetrations of the thickened, fibrous dura of the chronic monkey preparation. The iron content allows Prussian blue staining of marking lesions for histological verification of recording sites.

Flash P2 delay in primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer type.

1. Flash visual evoked responses of 31 patients meeting DSM-III-R criteria for primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer type were compared with 31 healthy controls. 2. P1 latency was normal (75 +/- 6 msec Alzheimer's; 75 +/- 6 msec controls). 3. P2 was significantly delayed (162 +/- 32 msec, 147 +/- 20 msec, p < 0.03) among patients. 4. P1-P2 interpeak latency was significantly increased (87 +/- 32 msec, 71 +/- 21 msec, p < 0.03) among patients.

Delayed late component of visual global field power in probable Alzheimer's disease.

A substantial literature shows that late components of visual evoked potentials (VEPs) are delayed in at least some forms of dementia in the elderly. The late-component delay is selective in that earlier components are not affected. More recent work with better defined clinical groups suggests that the selective late-component delay may be characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD) rather than an inevitable feature of dementia in general. To overcome problems in traditional VEP component latency measurement the present study uses reference-free Global Field Power (GFP) analysis to more objectively define VEP components and finds that the GFP peak corresponding to the late P2 component of the flash VEP is delayed in a probable AD group but not in a demented unlikely AD group, relative to age-equivalent healthy controls. The late-component delay is again found to be selective in that the GFP peak corresponding to the earlier P1 component of the flash VEP does not differ between groups. These findings further strengthen the evidence for electrocortical changes in the visual system of AD patients.

Potentiation of odor by taste and odor aversions in rats are regulated by cholinergic activity of dorsal hippocampus.

Limbic cholinergic activity is critically involved in the retention of learned aversions tasks. The purpose of these experiments was to assess the role of cholinergic mechanisms of the dorsal hippocampus in the acquisition of both odor and potentiated odor aversions through taste aversion. Cholinergic activity was increased by physostigmine (Phys). When Phys was applied before the presentation of an odor-taste compound during acquisition, the potentiation of odor-aversion was disrupted, while taste aversion was left intact. When hippocampal cholinergic activity was reduced with the muscarinic antagonist scopolamine (Scop), enhancement of potentiated odor aversion was observed, again with no effect on taste aversion. Moreover, when Phys was applied before an odor alone it also disrupted odor avoidance in two different odor tests conditioning situations, i.e., odor was followed immediately by lithium chloride or foot shock. Neither Scop nor Phys had any effect on taste or potential odor aversions when applied to fronto-parietal cortex. These results suggest that cholinergic activity of the hippocampus is involved in the acquisition of odor aversion conditioning.

Concurrent visual task effects on evoked and emitted auditory p300 in adolescents.

Using an oddball stimulus presentation paradigm, the effects of divided attention on auditory P300s were studied. Auditory attention was either divided or focused, depending on the demands placed on subjects during the performance of a concomitantly presented visual task. Two types of auditory tasks were performed under each of the two auditory attention conditions. In one, subjects responded to infrequently presented high pitched tones (oddball stimuli). In the other they responded to the occasional omission of a stimulus in an otherwise rhythmically presented chain of stimuli. P300s and reaction times were recorded to both the rare tones and the omissions. The Sternberg visual memory task was used to manipulate the subject's auditory attention state. Subjects actively performed the Sternberg task during the divided auditory attention condition, whereas during the focused attention condition they were not required to respond to the visual stimuli. During focused auditory attention, evoked auditory P300s were both larger and faster than their emitted counterparts. During divided attention, auditory P300s were reduced in amplitude but latency was unaffected. Evoked auditory P300s showed evidence of containing P300a as well as P300b components, particularly when attention was shared with the visual task.

Electrocortical mapping, MRI, and neuropsychological measures: evidence of Alzheimer's disease in the presence of vascular lesions.

We report here a case study of a 76-year-old woman with a high school education, whose presenting psychiatric symptomatology indicated dementia of unknown etiology. Neuropsychological test results were consistent with AD, but diagnosis was complicated by an MRI showing a large right hemisphere cortical infarct and scattered subcortical changes leading to a diagnosis of possible AD. Electrocortical mapping showed the right hemisphere infarct, and gave independent evidence suggestive of AD in the relatively intact left hemisphere. This case demonstrates the utility of multidimensional assessment as an aid to differential diagnosis.

Facts and artifacts in brain electrical activity mapping.

As computerized EEG (CEEG) analysis and display methods become increasingly powerful the user is lured toward increasingly abstract representations of data in which artifacts can easily go unrecognized. The presence of even small amounts of artifact can lead to distortion of CEEG results due to the sensitivity of the analysis methods employed. Several common artifacts are discussed, their distortion of CEEG data illustrated, and remedial measures suggested. Some of these artifacts (EOG, EMG, photomyoclonic, tremor, ECG, 60 Hz, volume conducted cortical activity) are familiar to traditional EEG (aliasing, extrapolation) are unique to CEEG and may be inadvertently introduced by workers not specifically trained in CEEG methods.

Visual evoked potentials in dementia: selective delay of flash P2 in probable Alzheimer's disease.

The flash visual evoked potential P2 component is delayed in etiologically mixed groups of demented patients compared to healthy controls or nondemented patients. This study compared patients meeting both DSM-III-R criteria for dementia and NINCDS-ADRDA criteria for probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) with healthy elderly controls and found the P2 delay in the probable AD group. Additional comparisons found no evidence of a P2 delay in demented unlikely AD patients. These results suggest that earlier findings of a delayed P2 in etiologically mixed demented groups may have been due to inclusion of AD patients.

Effects of aerobic exercise and gender on visual and auditory P300, reaction time, and accuracy.

Visual and auditory reaction times (RTs) have been reported to decrease during moderate aerobic exercise, and this has been interpreted as reflecting an exercise-induced activation (EIA) of cognitive information processing. In the present study we examined changes in several independent measures of information processing (RT, accuracy, P300 latency and amplitude) during exercise, and their relationship to visual or auditory modalities and to gender. P300 latencies offer independent measures of cognitive speed that are unrelated to motor output, and P300 amplitudes have been used as measures of attentional allocation. Twenty-four healthy college students [mean (SD) age 20 (2) years] performed auditory and visual "oddball" tasks during resting baseline, aerobic exercise, and recovery periods. Consistent with previous studies, both visual and auditory RTs during exercise were significantly shortened compared to control and recovery periods (which did not differ from each other). We now report that, paralleling the RT changes, auditory and visual P300 latencies decreased during exercise, indicating the occurrence of faster cognitive information processing in both sensory modalities. However, both auditory and visual P300 amplitudes decreased during exercise, suggesting diminished attentional resource allocation. In addition, error rates increased during exercise. Taken together, these results suggest that the enhancement of cognitive information processing speed during moderate aerobic exercise, although operating across genders and sensory modalities, is not a global facilitation of cognition, but is accompanied by decreased attention and increased errors.

P2 flash visual evoked response delay may be a marker of cognitive dysfunction in healthy elderly volunteers.

In an earlier study, 31 healthy elderly volunteers had normal cognitive function as measured by the Mini-Mental State Examination. Twenty-seven returned for further memory testing using the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R). The P2 latency of the flash visual evoked response was positively correlated with age (p = .0008), but was not significantly related to gender. Nine of these 27 putatively healthy subjects had a delayed P2, suggestive of dementia. Although unaware of any memory deficits, 5 of the 27 had WMS-R Visual Memory Span percentile scores 1 or more standard deviations less than age-matched controls. Four of the five also had a significantly delayed P2 component. This positive correlation, adjusted for age, between poor Visual Memory Span performance and a delayed P2 was statistically significant (p < .025). These findings suggest that a delayed P2 in putatively healthy subjects is indicative of a visuospatial deficit which might be a precursor of dementia later.

EEG-based, neural-net predictive classification of Alzheimer's disease versus control subjects is augmented by non-linear EEG measures.

Attempts to classify Alzheimer's disease (AD) subjects versus controls using spectral-band measures of electroencephalographic (EEG) data typically achieve around 80% success. This study assessed the ability of adding non-linear EEG measures and using a neural-net classification procedure to improve this performance level. The non-linear EEG measures were estimated correlation dimension ("dimensional complexity," or DCx) and saturation (degree of leveling-off of DCx with increasing embedding dimension). In a sample of 39 subjects (14 ADs, 25 controls), it was found that (a) the addition of non-linear EEG measures improved the classification accuracy of the AD/control status of subjects, and (b) a back-percolation neural net predictively classified the subjects much better than the standard linear techniques of multivariate discriminant analysis or nearest-neighbor discriminant analysis.

Neuropsychological "systems efficiency" and positron emission tomography.

Positron emission tomography (PET) has dramatically improved our ability to examine the functioning of the living brain. PET studies of neural pathways of the major sensory modalities--auditory, visual, somatosensory--have confirmed many traditional neuropsychological concepts, such as cross-lateral representation and regional functioning to particular primary sensory cortical areas. Other PET studies have used radioisotopes to examine relationships between radiopharmaceutical agents and neurobehavioral functioning in both normal and neuropathological states. In some areas, PET methodology requires further refinement. For example, effort should be made to develop the technology to do multiple scans within a short time frame; statistical procedures to examine relationships between neuropsychological tasks and the activity or presence of radiopharmaceutical agents in multiple sites; adequate controls for experimental error; and activation paradigms controlling the nonspecific effects of simple arousal. PET activation models of cognition suggest that a "systems efficiency" approach to assessing neuropsychological test performance involving both serial and parallel processing would be useful. These developments will improve empirical methodology and our understanding of brain-behavior relationships.