Commentary: Actionable Steps for Addressing Pediatric Pain in Rural and Underserved Communities: Disrupting Our Approach to Psychological Science and Care.

Although chronic pain is one of the most common health issues affecting children, disparities in access to behavioral healthcare limit its proper identification and management. There is a critical need to move beyond traditional care delivery approaches for chronic pain to reach those in communities that have limited access to care. We argue one means of doing so is to leverage our skills and expertise as psychologists to partner with and train professionals who have established relationships with youth in these communities. Drawing from a community-engaged dissemination and implementation science framework and our research implementing pain management strategies in rural and underserved communities, we review actionable strategies for disrupting traditional psychological methods to expand access to care for children with chronic pain.

Combining Guided Intervention of Education and Relaxation (GIER) with Remote Electrical Neuromodulation (REN) in the Acute Treatment of Migraine.

BACKGROUND: Evidence indicates that combining behavioral treatments with pharmacological treatments for migraine prevention improves efficacy, but little is known about the outcomes of combining neuromodulation and behavioral interventions for acute treatment of migraine. Remote electrical neuromodulation (REN) is a U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-cleared nonpharmacological migraine treatment. The present study evaluated the clinical benefits of augmenting REN treatment with a specially tailored behavioral therapy consisting of Guided Intervention of Education and Relaxation (GIER) for the acute treatment of migraine. METHODS: In this two-arm observational study, real-world data were collected from patients across the United States who were using the REN device. Eighty-five migraine patients ≥18 years of age who treated their attacks with REN in parallel with the GIER intervention were individually matched on age and sex with 85 patients who used REN alone. The groups were compared on the proportion of migraine attacks in which they achieved pain relief, pain freedom, improvement of function, and return to normal function, all at 2 hours after treatment. RESULTS: Data from 170 users were analyzed (85 per group). Compared with the REN-only group, the REN+GIER group displayed a statistically significant higher proportion of patients achieving consistent pain relief (P = 0.008), consistent improvement in function (P = 0.014), and consistent return to normal function (P = 0.005), all at 2 hours after treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that combining the GIER behavioral intervention with REN treatment can improve the therapeutic efficacy beyond that of REN alone, in terms of both pain level and improvement of disability.

Motivating Behavior Change in Parents for Suicide Prevention in the Midwest, USA.

Safe storage of lethal means is an evidence-based approach to suicide prevention that is underutilized. This naturalistic study investigated whether a presentation on parenting teenagers that includes education about safe storage of firearms and medications, paired with tools to enact change, can impact storage practices. Ten community presentations for parents were given between November 2018 and September 2019 in the Midwest region of the United States. Multiple topics pertinent to parenting adolescents were included with an emphasis on safe storage of firearms and medications to reduce suicide risk. Toolkits including medication storage boxes and cable gun locks were offered to help parents enact recommended changes. Surveys were completed prior to the presentation (T1), immediately following the presentation (T2), and 2 weeks after the presentation (T3). Five-hundred eighty-one parents comprised the initial study sample, of whom 410 (70.6%) completed the primary study endpoint. Generalized linear mixed models with and without worst-case imputation were used to evaluate changes in safe storage practices. Results suggested the odds of storing firearms in the safest manner possible increased 5.9 times (95% CI 2.6-13.5, p < 0.001) without imputation and increased 2.0 times (95% CI 1.1-3.4, p = 0.02) with the worst-case imputation. Among participants with unlocked medications at baseline, 56.5% reported they had disposed of old medications and 53.0% reported locking up bottles of medication by the primary study endpoint. This study provides preliminary evidence that safe storage education paired with tools for behavior change motivates parents to enact safe storage measures.

The iCanCope pain self-management application for adolescents with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of iCanCope with Pain (iCanCope), a smartphone-based pain self-management program, in adolescents with JIA. iCanCope featured symptom tracking, goal-setting, pain coping skills and social support. METHODS: A two-arm pilot randomized controlled trial was used to evaluate the iCanCope app compared with a version with symptom tracking only. Primary (feasibility) outcomes were: participant accrual/attrition rates, success of app deployment, acceptability and adherence. Secondary (preliminary effectiveness) outcomes were: pain intensity, pain-related activity limitations and health-related quality of life. Outcomes were assessed at baseline and 8 weeks. Adherence was defined as the proportion of completed symptom reports: 'low' (≤24%); 'low-moderate' (25-49%); 'high-moderate' (50-75%); or 'high' (76-100%). Linear mixed models were applied for preliminary effectiveness analyses as per intention-to-treat. RESULTS: Adolescents (N = 60) were recruited from three paediatric rheumatology centres. Rates of accrual and attrition were 82 and 13%, respectively. Both apps were deployed with high success (over 85%) and were rated as highly acceptable. Adherence was similar for both groups, with most participants demonstrating moderate-to-high adherence. Both groups exhibited a clinically meaningful reduction in pain intensity (≥1 point) that did not statistically differ between groups. There were no significant changes in activity limitations or health-related quality of life. CONCLUSION: The iCanCope pilot randomized controlled trial was feasible to implement in a paediatric rheumatology setting. Both apps were deployed successfully, with high acceptability, and were associated with moderate-to-high adherence. Preliminary reductions in pain intensity warrant a future trial to evaluate effectiveness of iCanCope in improving health outcomes in adolescents with JIA. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02764346.

Feasibility of using "SMARTER" methodology for monitoring precipitating conditions of pediatric migraine episodes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility in children of an intensive prospective data monitoring methodology for identifying precipitating conditions for migraine occurrence. BACKGROUND: Migraine headaches are a common pain condition in childhood and can become increasingly chronic and disabling with repeated episodes. Identifying conditions that forecast when a child's migraine is likely to occur may facilitate next-generation adaptive treatments to prevent future migraine attacks. METHODS: In this cohort study of a sample of 30 youth (ages 10-17) with migraine recruited through a pediatric headache clinic, smartphones supplemented with wearable biosensors were used over a period of 28 days to collect contextual data thought to be potentially relevant to headache occurrence. Self-reported data on headache occurrence, lifestyle, and perceptions of the environment were collected in 4 epochs per day using custom real-time reporting software. Data derived from the wearable biosensor included information on autonomic arousal and physical activity. Built-in sensors on participants' own phones also were used to indicate location and to quantify the sensory environment (e.g., ambient noise and light levels). Data fidelity was monitored to evaluate feasibility of the methods, and participant acceptability was assessed via an end-of-study survey. RESULTS: Self-report data were obtained on a mean of 88.9% (24.9/28) of assigned days (SD = 22.4%) and at a mean of 68.9% (77.2/112) of assigned moments (SD = 24.5%). Data from the wearable biosensor were obtained for a mean of 18.7 hours per day worn (SD = 2.3 hours), with participants on average wearing the sensor on 20.3 days (SD = 9.9). Fidelity of obtaining objective data from phone sensors on the sensory environment and other environmental conditions was highly variable, with these data obtainable from 5 to 22/30 (16.7%-73.3%) of participants' own phones. Most participants (63.3%-100%) responded with at least "somewhat agree" to questions about acceptability of the study methods. However, 5 to 7/30 (16.7%-23.3%) patients indicated difficulties with burden and remembering to wear the sensor. Almost all participants (29/30, 96.7%) agreed that they would want information about when a migraine might occur. CONCLUSIONS: A contemporary data sampling approach comprising ambulatory sensors and real-time reporting appears to be acceptable to most youth with migraine in this study. Reliability of acquiring some data sources from participants' own phones, however, was suboptimal. Further refining these data sampling methods may enable a novel means of predicting and preventing recurrences of migraine episodes in youth.

Rates and Predictors of Using Opioids in the Emergency Department to Treat Migraine in Adolescents and Young Adults.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the rate and context in which opioids are used to treat migraine in adolescents and young adults seen in emergency care settings. METHODS: Data from 2010 to 2016 in the Cerner Health Facts electronic health record data warehouse were analyzed using multilevel logistic regression to estimate the population likelihood of an opioid being used in the emergency department (ED) to treat a primary diagnosis of migraine in adolescents and young adults and to evaluate the extent to which this likelihood varies as a function of characteristics of the patient (age, sex, race, and insurance), encounter (referral source, provider specialty, and encounter duration and year), and ED (region, setting, size, payer mix, and academic status). RESULTS: The study identified 14,494 eligible ED encounters with unique patients, of which 23% involved an opioid. Likelihood of being treated with opioids was significantly higher for patients who were older, female, white, and seen by a surgeon and who had longer encounters and encounters earlier in the time period sampled. Sites varied widely in percentage of encounters involving opioids (mean, 26.4% ± 20.1%; range, 0-100%), with higher rates associated with smaller sites with relatively higher proportions of commercially insured patients. CONCLUSIONS: Use of opioids in the ED to treat migraine in youth is fairly common, with rate variation reflecting broader trends in for whom opioids tend to be more likely to be prescribed. These findings may be helpful for benchmarking and informing quality improvement efforts aimed at reducing unwarranted opioid exposure in youth.

The Influence of Lifestyle Factors on the Burden of Pediatric Migraine.

There is a gap in patient education and coaching of lifestyle factors related to pediatric migraine, which nurses are in a unique position to fill in order to provide comprehensive care to these patients. In order to help fill this gap, we conducted a targeted review of studies examining migraine and lifestyle factors in children and adolescents. Studies older than 2010, studies examining adults above the age of 18, studies not available in the English language, and secondary sources were excluded from the review. A final sample of 42 studies was included in this review. Lifestyle factors including stress, sleep, obesity, and diet were identified as playing a significant role in increasing the frequency, severity, and duration of migraine attacks in pediatric patients. Based on these findings, a framework is discussed for practical applications of this knowledge by nursing staff working in primary and specialty care clinics.

Enhancing Outpatient Dihydroergotamine Infusion With Interdisciplinary Care to Treat Refractory Pediatric Migraine: Preliminary Outcomes From the Comprehensive Aggressive Migraine Protocol ("CAMP").

OBJECTIVE: To determine preliminary outcomes of a treatment for refractory pediatric migraine that integrates outpatient dihydroergotamine (DHE) infusion with interdisciplinary adjunctive care. BACKGROUND: Limited data are available to inform treatment of refractory migraine in children. Intravenous DHE therapy has shown promise but has been implemented in costly inpatient settings and in isolation of nonpharmacological strategies shown to enhance analgesia and functional improvement. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review of 36 patients ages 11-18 with refractory migraine who underwent a pilot treatment program in an outpatient neurology clinic. The treatment integrated up to 5 days of outpatient DHE infusion with adjunctive nonpharmacological care (pain coping skills training, massage, aromatherapy, and school reintegration support). Changes in headache, healthcare utilization, and functional limitations were assessed as indicators of treatment response through 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: On average, headache intensity declined (M = 5.8 ± 2.5 to M = 2.4 ± 2.7; P < .0001) during the treatment period and remained statistically significantly improved through 3-month follow-up. Headache frequency decreased by a mean of 1.5 days per week (M = 6.7 ± 1.0 vs M = 5.2 ± 2.7, P = .012) through 3-month follow-up, with a 27% reduction (from 0.91 to 0.66) in the proportion of patients reporting a continuous headache (P = .009). Over this same follow-up period, there was a reduction in school days missed per month (median [25th, 75th percentile]: 4.5 [0, 21.0] vs 0 [0.0, 0.5]). There also were reductions in headache-related visits per month to the emergency department and medical providers. Adverse effects were common but typically minor and transient. CONCLUSIONS: Combining outpatient DHE infusion with interdisciplinary adjunctive care has promise as an effective treatment option for adolescents with refractory migraine.

Multisite Randomized Clinical Trial Evaluating an Online Self-Management Program for Adolescents With Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the efficacy in improving pain and health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of an online self-management program for adolescents with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). METHODS: Youth ages 12-18 years with JIA were recruited from 10 rheumatology clinics across the United States and randomized to complete an online self-management program (n = 144) or an online disease education program (n = 145). Participants in the self-management group worked through multimedia-based modules comprising psychoeducation, training in cognitive-behavioral coping skills and stress management, and other self-management topics over a 12-week period. Participants in the control group viewed a series of preselected quality educational websites about JIA over the same interval. Online content for both groups was made available in English and Spanish to facilitate inclusion of Hispanic participants. Blinded assessment of main outcomes (pain intensity, pain interference, and HRQOL) and process outcomes (disease knowledge, self-efficacy, pain coping, and emotional adjustment) occurred at baseline, posttreatment, and at 6- and 12-month postrandomization follow-up visits. RESULTS: Participants on average demonstrated significant improvements over the study period in the main outcomes, with no significant group differences in the degree of improvement. Effect sizes for these improvements were small. The amount of improvement in self-efficacy, emotional avoidance coping, disease knowledge, and emotional functioning in part predicted improvement in pain and HRQOL outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Primarily self-directed online self-management training and online disease education comparably and modestly improve pain and HRQOL in youth with JIA.

Enumeration and characterization of circulating multiple myeloma cells in patients with plasma cell disorders.

We have developed an automated assay to enumerate and characterize circulating multiple myeloma cells (CMMC) from peripheral blood of patients with plasma cell disorders. CMMC show expression of genes characteristic of myeloma and fluorescence in situ hybridisation results on CMMC correlated well with bone marrow results. We enumerated CMMC from over 1000 patient samples including separate cohorts of newly diagnosed multiple myeloma and high/intermediate risk smouldering multiple myeloma (SMM) with clinical follow-up data. In newly diagnosed myeloma patient samples, CMMC counts correlated with other clinical measures of disease burden, including the percentage of bone marrow plasma cells, serum M protein, and International Staging System stage. CMMC counts decreased significantly from baseline when a remission was achieved due to treatment (P < 0·001). Patients with CMMC counts ≥100 at remission showed reduced survival relative to patients with CMMC counts <100. Patients with undetectable CMMC in remission showed further overall survival benefits. In the SMM cohort, there was a trend toward higher CMMC in patients with higher-risk myeloma precursor states. Significantly higher CMMC counts were observed between intermediate/high risk SMM patients that progressed versus those without progression (P = 0·031). CMMC allow a non-invasive means of monitoring tumour biology and may have use as a prognostic test for patients with plasma cell disorders.

Prognostic and predictive value of circulating tumor cells and CXCR4 expression as biomarkers for a CXCR4 peptide antagonist in combination with carboplatin-etoposide in small cell lung cancer: exploratory analysis of a phase II study.

Background Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 4 (CXCR4) expression in CTCs and tumor tissue were evaluated as prognostic or predictive markers of CXCR4 peptide antagonist LY2510924 plus carboplatin-etoposide (CE) versus CE in extensive-stage disease small cell lung cancer (ED-SCLC). Methods This exploratory analysis of a phase II study evaluated CXCR4 expression in baseline tumor tissue and peripheral blood CTCs and in post-treatment CTCs. Optimum cutoff values were determined for CTC counts and CXCR4 expression in tumors and CTCs as predictors of survival outcome. Kaplan-Meier estimates and hazard ratios were used to determine biomarker prognostic and predictive values. Results There was weak positive correlation at baseline between CXCR4 expression in tumor tissue and CTCs. Optimum cutoff values were H-score ≥ 210 for CXCR4+ tumor, ≥7% CTCs with CXCR4 expression (CXCR4+ CTCs), and ≥6 CTCs/7.5 mL blood. Baseline H-score for CXCR4+ tumor was not prognostic of progression-free survival (PFS) or overall survival (OS). Baseline CXCR4+ CTCs ≥7% was prognostic of shorter PFS. CTCs ≥6 at baseline and cycle 2, day 1 were prognostic of shorter PFS and OS. None of the biomarkers at their respective optimum cutoffs was predictive of treatment response of LY2510924 plus CE versus CE. Conclusions In patients with ED-SCLC, baseline CXCR4 expression in tumor tissue was not prognostic of survival or predictive of LY2510924 treatment response. Baseline CXCR4+ CTCs ≥7% was prognostic of shorter PFS. CTC count ≥6 at baseline and after 1 cycle of treatment were prognostic of shorter PFS and OS.

The Relationship Between Pain Characteristics, Peer Difficulties, and Emotional Functioning Among Adolescents Seeking Treatment for Chronic Pain: A Test of Mediational Models.

Objective: To evaluate patterns of relationships between pain characteristics, peer difficulties, and emotional functioning in a sample of adolescents seeking treatment for chronic pain. Methods: Participants were 172 adolescents (age M = 14.88 years; 76% female, 88% White) with heterogeneous chronic pain disorders who completed measures of pain characteristics, peer difficulties, and emotional functioning before their new patient appointment in a pain management clinic. Direct and indirect relationships between variables were tested using path analysis. Results: Adequate model fit was found for models that specified emotional functioning (anxiety and depression) as a mediator of the relationship between pain interference and peer difficulties. Conversely, poor fit was found for all models specifying peer difficulties as a mediator of the relationship between pain characteristics and emotional functioning. Conclusions: Assessing and targeting depression and anxiety among youth with high pain interference may help prevent or improve peer difficulties.

Development of a method to isolate circulating tumor cells using mesenchymal-based capture.

Epithelial tumor cells can become mesenchymal cells and vice versa via phenotypic transitions, a process known as epithelial plasticity. We postulate that during the process of metastasis, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) lose their epithelial phenotype and acquire a mesenchymal phenotype that may not be sufficiently captured by existing epithelial-based CTC technologies. We report here on the development of a novel CTC capture method, based on the biology of epithelial plasticity, which isolates cells based on OB-cadherin cell surface expression. Using this mesenchymal-based assay, OB-cadherin cellular events are detectable in men with metastatic prostate cancer and are less common in healthy volunteers. This method may complement existing epithelial-based methods and may be particularly useful in patients with bone metastases.

Commentary: pediatric eHealth interventions: common challenges during development, implementation, and dissemination.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an overview of common challenges that pediatric eHealth researchers may encounter when planning, developing, testing, and disseminating eHealth interventions along with proposed solutions for addressing these challenges. METHODS: The article draws on the existing eHealth literature and the authors' collective experience in pediatric eHealth research. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The challenges associated with eHealth interventions and their proposed solutions are multifaceted and cut across a number of areas from eHealth program development through dissemination. Collaboration with a range of individuals (e.g., multidisciplinary colleagues, commercial entities, primary stakeholders) is the key to eHealth intervention success. To ensure adequate resources for design, development, and planning for sustainability, a number of public and private sources of funding are available. A study design that addresses ethical concerns and security issues is critical to ensure scientific integrity and intervention dissemination. Table I summarizes key issues to consider during eHealth intervention development, testing, and dissemination.

Headstrong intervention for pediatric migraine headache: a randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a self-guided CD-ROM program ("Headstrong") containing cognitive-behavioral self-management strategies versus an educational CD-ROM program for treating headaches, headache-related disability, and quality of life. METHODS: Participants were 35 children ages 7-12 years with migraine recruited from one university medical center and two children's hospital headache clinics. Participants were randomly assigned to complete the Headstrong or educational control CD-ROM program over a 4-week period. Data on headache frequency, duration, and severity, migraine-related disability, and quality of life (QOL) were obtained at baseline, post-intervention, and 3-months post-intervention. RESULTS: At post-intervention, Headstrong resulted in lower severity (on a 10-point scale) than the control group by child report (5.06 ± 1.50 SD vs. 6.25 ± 1.92 SD, p = 0.03, ES = 0.7). At 3-months post-intervention, parents reported less migraine-related disability (on the PedMIDAS) in the Headstrong group compared to the control group (1.36 ± 2.06 SD vs. 5.18 ± 6.40 SD; p = 0.04, ES = 0.8). There were no other group differences at post treatment or at 3-months post-intervention. CONCLUSIONS: When compared to an educational control, Headstrong resulted in lower pain severity at post-treatment and less migraine-related disability at 3-months post-intervention, by child and parent report respectively. Headache frequency and quality of life did not change more for Headstrong versus control. Additional research is needed on the Headstrong Program to increase its efficacy and to test it with a larger sample recruited from multiple centers simultaneously.

A comparative effectiveness trial of functional behavioral assessment methods.

Clinicians report primarily using functional behavioral assessment (FBA) methods that do not include functional analyses. However, studies examining the correspondence between functional analyses and other types of FBAs have produced inconsistent results. In addition, although functional analyses are considered the gold standard, their contribution toward successful treatment compared with other FBA methods remains unclear. This comparative effectiveness study, conducted with 57 young children with autism spectrum disorder, evaluated the results of FBAs that did (n = 26) and did not (n = 31) include a functional analysis. Results of FBAs with and without functional analyses showed modest correspondence. All participants who completed functional communication training achieved successful outcomes regardless of the type of FBA conducted.

Associations between white matter microstructure and infants' working memory.

Working memory emerges in infancy and plays a privileged role in subsequent adaptive cognitive development. The neural networks important for the development of working memory during infancy remain unknown. We used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and deterministic fiber tracking to characterize the microstructure of white matter fiber bundles hypothesized to support working memory in 12-month-old infants (n=73). Here we show robust associations between infants' visuospatial working memory performance and microstructural characteristics of widespread white matter. Significant associations were found for white matter tracts that connect brain regions known to support working memory in older children and adults (genu, anterior and superior thalamic radiations, anterior cingulum, arcuate fasciculus, and the temporal-parietal segment). Better working memory scores were associated with higher FA and lower RD values in these selected white matter tracts. These tract-specific brain-behavior relationships accounted for a significant amount of individual variation above and beyond infants' gestational age and developmental level, as measured with the Mullen Scales of Early Learning. Working memory was not associated with global measures of brain volume, as expected, and few associations were found between working memory and control white matter tracts. To our knowledge, this study is among the first demonstrations of brain-behavior associations in infants using quantitative tractography. The ability to characterize subtle individual differences in infant brain development associated with complex cognitive functions holds promise for improving our understanding of normative development, biomarkers of risk, experience-dependent learning and neuro-cognitive periods of developmental plasticity.

Relationship between daily mood and migraine in children.

BACKGROUND: Retrospective and cross-sectional studies have suggested a bidirectional relationship between migraine and mood disturbance. OBJECTIVE: The present prospective daily diary study examined the prevalence and temporal associations between migraine and daily mood, mood and next-day headache, and headache and next-day mood. METHODS: Sixty-nine children (50 females, 19 males) between the ages of 7 and 12 years and their parents attending neurology clinic appointments and having a diagnosis of migraine as defined by International Headache Classification 2nd edition criteria completed measures on the quality of life, headache disability, child emotions, and child behaviors. Children and parents then recorded children's headache occurrence, headache duration, headache severity, mood, daily hassles, and medication use on paper diaries once a day for 2 consecutive weeks. "Mood" was defined using the Facial Affective Scale, which is a visual representation of negative and positive affect. Data were analyzed using multilevel models. RESULTS: Controlling for age, sex, quality of life, headache disability, and medication use, worse mood was associated with same-day occurrence, longer duration, and more severe headache in both child and parent report. Today's mood was not consistently associated with next-day headache, and today's headache was not associated with next-day mood in either child or parent report. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this study lend support to a complex relationship between mood and headache in children with migraine. More research is needed to further elucidate the temporal nature of this relationship within a given day and over an extended period of time.

Acceptability and Tolerability of Extended Reality Relaxation Training with and without Wearable Neurofeedback in Pediatric Migraine.

Objective. To determine the acceptability of using extended reality (XR) relaxation training as a preventive treatment for pediatric migraine. Methods. Youths aged 10-17 years old with migraine were recruited from a specialty headache clinic and completed baseline measures evaluating their vestibular symptoms and attitudes about technology. The patients were then instructed in three XR-based relaxation training conditions (fully immersive virtual reality with and without neurofeedback, and augmented reality with neurofeedback), in counterbalanced order, and completed acceptability and side effect questionnaires after each. The patients also took XR equipment home for one week to use for relaxation practice and again completed the measures about their experience. The acceptability and side effect data were compared against predetermined acceptable thresholds and were evaluated for their association with the participant characteristics. Results. The aggregate acceptability questionnaire scores exceeded our minimum threshold of 3.5/5, with the two fully immersive virtual reality conditions preferred over augmented reality for relaxation training (z = -3.02, p = 0.003, and z = -2.31, p = 0.02). The endorsed side effects were rated by all but one participant as mild, with vertigo being the most common. The acceptability ratings were not reliably associated with age, sex, typical hours per day of technology use, or technology attitudes, but were inversely related to the side effect scores. Conclusions. The preliminary data on acceptability and tolerability of immersive XR technology for relaxation training among youths with migraine supports further intervention development work.

A Prospective Evaluation of the Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth with Primary Headache Disorders.

Alterations in certain academic and social/family routines during the COVID-19 pandemic have been speculated to be either a risk factor or buffer for poor health outcomes for youth with stress-sensitive health conditions such as primary headache disorders. The current study evaluated patterns and moderators of pandemic impacts on youth with primary headache disorders, with an aim of extending our understanding of the relationship between stress, resilience, and outcomes in this population. Children recruited from a headache clinic in the midwestern United States reported on their headaches, schooling, routines, psychological stress, and coping at four timepoints ranging from within a few months of the pandemic onset to a long-term follow-up 2 years later. Changes in headache characteristics over time were analyzed for association with demographics, school status, altered routines, and stress, and coping. At baseline, 41% and 58% of participants reported no change in headache frequency or intensity, respectively, relative to pre-pandemic levels, with the remainder almost equally divided between reporting an improvement or worsening. The results of multilevel growth model analyses indicated that headache intensity remained more elevated over time since the start of the pandemic for respondents whose stress scores were relatively higher (b = 0.18, t = -2.70, p = 0.01), and headache-related disability remained more elevated over time for older respondents (b = 0.01, t = -2.12, p = 0.03). The study results suggest, overall, that the outcomes of primary headache disorders in youth were not systematically altered by the COVID-19 pandemic.