Influence of Educational Background, Childhood Socioeconomic Environment, and Language Use on Cognition among Spanish-Speaking Latinos Living Near the US-Mexico Border.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated the impact of culturally relevant social, educational, and language factors on cognitive test performance among Spanish speakers living near the US-Mexico border. METHODS: Participants included 254 healthy native Spanish speakers from the Neuropsychological Norms for the US-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project (Age: M = 37.3, SD = 10.4; Education: M = 10.7, SD = 4.3; 59% Female). A comprehensive neuropsychological battery was administered in Spanish. Individual test scaled scores and T-scores (based on region-specific norms adjusted for age, education, and sex) were averaged to create Global Mean Scaled and T-scores. Measures of culturally relevant factors included a self-reported indicator of educational quality/access (proportion of education in Spanish-speaking country, quality of school/classroom setting, stopped attending school to work), childhood socioeconomic environment (parental education, proportion of time living in Spanish-speaking country, childhood socioeconomic and health status, access to basic resources, work as a child), and Spanish/English language use and fluency. RESULTS: Several culturally relevant variables were significantly associated with unadjusted Global Scaled Scores in univariable analyses. When using demographically adjusted T-scores, fewer culturally relevant characteristics were significant. In multivariable analyses, being bilingual (p = .04) and working as a child for one's own benefit compared to not working as a child (p = .006) were significantly associated with higher Global Mean T-score, accounting for 9% of variance. CONCLUSIONS: Demographically adjusted normative data provide a useful tool for the identification of brain dysfunction, as these account for much of the variance of sociocultural factors on cognitive test performance. Yet, certain culturally relevant variables still contributed to cognitive test performance above and beyond basic demographics, warranting further investigation.

Education differentially contributes to cognitive reserve across racial/ethnic groups.

INTRODUCTION: We examined whether educational attainment differentially contributes to cognitive reserve (CR) across race/ethnicity. METHODS: A total of 1553 non-Hispanic Whites (Whites), non-Hispanic Blacks (Blacks), and Hispanics in the Washington Heights-Inwood Columbia Aging Project (WHICAP) completed structural magnetic resonance imaging. Mixture growth curve modeling was used to examine whether the effect of brain integrity indicators (hippocampal volume, cortical thickness, and white matter hyperintensity [WMH] volumes) on memory and language trajectories was modified by education across racial/ethnic groups. RESULTS: Higher educational attainment attenuated the negative impact of WMH burden on memory (ß = -0.03; 99% CI: -0.071, -0.002) and language decline (ß = -0.024; 99% CI:- 0.044, -0.004), as well as the impact of cortical thinning on level of language performance for Whites, but not for Blacks or Hispanics. DISCUSSION: Educational attainment does not contribute to CR similarly across racial/ethnic groups.

The Lifespan Human Connectome Project in Aging: An overview.

The original Human Connectome Project yielded a rich data set on structural and functional connectivity in a large sample of healthy young adults using improved methods of data acquisition, analysis, and sharing. More recent efforts are extending this approach to include infants, children, older adults, and brain disorders. This paper introduces and describes the Human Connectome Project in Aging (HCP-A), which is currently recruiting 1200 + healthy adults aged 36 to 100+, with a subset of 600 + participants returning for longitudinal assessment. Four acquisition sites using matched Siemens Prisma 3T MRI scanners with centralized quality control and data analysis are enrolling participants. Data are acquired across multimodal imaging and behavioral domains with a focus on factors known to be altered in advanced aging. MRI acquisitions include structural (whole brain and high resolution hippocampal) plus multiband resting state functional (rfMRI), task fMRI (tfMRI), diffusion MRI (dMRI), and arterial spin labeling (ASL). Behavioral characterization includes cognitive (such as processing speed and episodic memory), psychiatric, metabolic, and socioeconomic measures as well as assessment of systemic health (with a focus on menopause via hormonal assays). This dataset will provide a unique resource for examining how brain organization and connectivity changes across typical aging, and how these differences relate to key characteristics of aging including alterations in hormonal status and declining memory and general cognition. A primary goal of the HCP-A is to make these data freely available to the scientific community, supported by the Connectome Coordination Facility (CCF) platform for data quality assurance, preprocessing and basic analysis, and shared via the NIMH Data Archive (NDA). Here we provide the rationale for our study design and sufficient details of the resource for scientists to plan future analyses of these data. A companion paper describes the related Human Connectome Project in Development (HCP-D, Somerville et al., 2018), and the image acquisition protocol common to both studies (Harms et al., 2018).

Effect of visual cues on the resolution of perceptual ambiguity in Parkinson's disease and normal aging.

Parkinson's disease (PD) and normal aging have been associated with changes in visual perception, including reliance on external cues to guide behavior. This raises the question of the extent to which these groups use visual cues when disambiguating information. Twenty-seven individuals with PD, 23 normal control adults (NC), and 20 younger adults (YA) were presented a Necker cube in which one face was highlighted by thickening the lines defining the face. The hypothesis was that the visual cues would help PD and NC to exert better control over bistable perception. There were three conditions, including passive viewing and two volitional-control conditions (hold one percept in front; and switch: speed up the alternation between the two). In the Hold condition, the cue was either consistent or inconsistent with task instructions. Mean dominance durations (time spent on each percept) under passive viewing were comparable in PD and NC, and shorter in YA. PD and YA increased dominance durations in the Hold cue-consistent condition relative to NC, meaning that appropriate cues helped PD but not NC hold one perceptual interpretation. By contrast, in the Switch condition, NC and YA decreased dominance durations relative to PD, meaning that the use of cues helped NC but not PD in expediting the switch between percepts. Provision of low-level cues has effects on volitional control in PD that are different from in normal aging, and only under task-specific conditions does the use of such cues facilitate the resolution of perceptual ambiguity.

Re-Engaging Individuals & Societies for Structural Evolution: A Brain Health Equity Neuropsychology Research Framework.

OBJECTIVE: A brain health equity neuropsychology research framework (NRF) is crucial to the anti-racist movement in cognitive assessments. Universalist interpretation of neuropsychological tools contributes to systemic disparities, and there is a need for a clear conceptual framework for disentangling the direct and indirect impact of social determinants of health (SDH) on brain-behavior relationships and neuropsychological performance. The aim of this paper is to present a NRF anchored in the principles of brain health and health equity that is inclusive, and can be implemented across racially and ethnically diverse communities. METHODS: The Re-engaging Individuals and societies for Structural Evolution (RISE) NRF aims to address this via a two-pronged approach: 1. Focusing on community engagement and recruitment and retention of individuals and societies typically not equitably represented in brain health studies, and 2. Integrating the conceptual structure of individual, community, and SDH, while considering the broader historical and current structures that differentially shape these. RESULTS: The proposed RISE NRF is dynamic and multidirectional. It identifies barriers and proposes strategies to engage communities and diversify recruitment. It identifies evidence-based guidance on non-cognitive determinants of health to include, consider or explore in brain health research. CONCLUSION: The RISE NRF can guide the development of culturally and linguistically responsive methodologies and assist with clearly conceptualized and contextualized interpretation of neuropsychological tools to foment a transformative science that benefits the brain health of marginalized communities.

Foundational Curriculum and Core Guidelines for Training in Latinx/a/o-Hispanic Cultural Neuropsychology Across the Lifespan.

OBJECTIVE: The training competency of individual and cultural diversity is an advanced, fundamental competency to health service psychology since 2015. However, there is minimal instruction on how to integrate it into training curricula in neuropsychology, especially at the postdoctoral fellowship level. Our objective was to operationalize the individual and cultural diversity standard to provide a tangible application for educational programs on how to develop a competency-based training model for Latinx/a/o-Hispanic (L/H) cultural neuropsychology across the lifespan. METHOD: The knowledge-based and applied-based competencies necessary to train to be a cultural neuropsychologist delivering services to L/H patients and families are defined. For learners to complete these competencies, training programs need to implement clinical, didactic, research, and professional development core guidelines grounded in cultural neuropsychology. We provide a framework on how to transform each core guideline, including a Didactics Core with foundational readings across a range of L/H topics, and a Report Template to guide the documentation of sociocultural information, language usage, normative data, and other relevant factors in a neuropsychological report. CONCLUSIONS: These cultural neuropsychology competencies and core guidelines need to become a basic core requirement for all neuropsychologists in training. With focused education in culturally based competencies, training programs can cultivate a sense of responsibility, inclusion, justice, and equity to train a generation of neuropsychologists, who intentionally and consistently practice socially responsible neuropsychology.

Can bilingualism increase neuroplasticity of language networks in epilepsy?

Individuals with left temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) have a higher rate of atypical (i.e., bilateral or right hemisphere) language lateralization compared to healthy controls. In addition, bilinguals have been observed to have a less left-lateralized pattern of language representation. We examined the combined influence of bilingual language experience and side of seizure focus on language lateralization profiles in TLE to determine whether bilingualism promotes re-organization of language networks. Seventy-two monolingual speakers of English (21 left TLE; LTLE, 22 right TLE; RTLE, 29 age-matched healthy controls; HC) and 24 English-dominant bilinguals (6 LTLE, 7 RTLE, 11 HC) completed a lexical-semantic functional MRI task and standardized measures of language in English. Language lateralization was determined using laterality indices based on activations in left vs right homologous perisylvian regions-of-interest (ROIs). In a fronto-temporal ROI, LTLE showed the expected pattern of weaker left language lateralization relative to HC, and monolinguals showed a trend of weaker left language lateralization relative to bilinguals. Importantly, these effects were qualified by a significant group by language status interaction, revealing that bilinguals with LTLE had greater rightward language lateralization relative to monolingual LTLE, with a large effect size particularly in the lateral temporal region. Rightward language lateralization was associated with better language scores in bilingual LTLE. These preliminary findings suggest a combined effect of bilingual language experience and a left hemisphere neurologic insult, which may together increase the likelihood of language re-organization to the right hemisphere. Our data underscore the need to consider bilingualism as an important factor contributing to language laterality in patients with TLE. Bilingualism may be neuroprotective pre-surgically and may mitigate post-surgical language decline following left anterior temporal lobectomy, which will be important to test in larger samples.

Culturally Competent Assessment of Neurocognitive Functioning in Latinos with Complex Multimorbidity: A Case Study.

Multimorbidity-the coexistence of multiple chronic conditions within an individual-is the new normal in hospital settings. Individuals with higher levels of multimorbidity require a multidisciplinary and holistic approach to meet their needs, though the complexity of their neurocognitive profiles is still poorly researched. This study reported on the neurocognitive profile of a 69-year-old, left-handed, Latino cisgender male with 10 years of education. He was deemed to have a short-term mortality in 2018, yet is still enjoying a good quality of life in 2022. This case report illustrated (a) a rather common neurocognitive profile of a patient with complex multimorbidity, (b) the advantages of being served in a center of excellence with linguistically and culturally appropriate services that evaluate patients' cognitive functioning and inform and provide continuity of care, and (c) the benefits of a holistic and multidisciplinary approach to the care of the multimorbidity population.

Factor Structure of the Escala de Autoeficacia para la Depresión en Adolescentes (EADA).

The current concept and measures of self-efficacy for depression in adolescents do not consider developmental and cultural aspects essential to understand and assess this construct in Latino youth. We examined the factor structure of the Escala de Autoeficacia para la Depresión en Adolescentes (EADA): a Spanish instrument designed to assess this construct as experienced by this population. Participants were 116 Puerto Rican adolescents aged 13 to 17 years who completed the EADA and two other self-report measures. An exploratory factor analysis yielded a two-factor solution (Personal Self-Efficacy for Depression and Interpersonal Self-Efficacy for Depression) accounting for 37.57% of the total variance. Results revealed that EADA factors have excellent internal consistency as well as concurrent and construct validity, supporting its adequacy to assess Latino adolescents' self-efficacy for depression. The conceptual meaning of the factors was consistent with the distinction between aspects of this construct hypothesized to be important among Latino youth.

Alzheimer's Disease in Bilingual Latinos: Clinical Decisions for Diagnosis and Treatment Planning.

Early and accurate identification of cognitive and functional decline in bilingual Latino/a older adults with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias continues to be a substantial public health concern. This paper highlights the heterogeneity in the clinical expression of Alzheimer's disease among bilingual Latino/as, the clinical decisions leading to a culturally and linguistically congruent neuropsychological assessment, and the interdisciplinary, multi-setting partnerships needed to ensure a healthy longevity post-diagnosis for the patient, the caregiver, and the family. Psychologists play an important role in advocating for the best standard of care, as the patients and families endure the long journey of care with dignity and respect.

Increasing Contrast Improves Object Perception in Parkinson's Disease with Visual Hallucinations.

BACKGROUND: Deficits in basic vision are associated with visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Of particular interest is contrast sensitivity loss in this disorder and its effect on object identification. OBJECTIVES: Evaluate whether increased contrast improves object perception in persons with Parkinson's disease and visual hallucinations, without dementia. METHODS: We assessed 26 individuals with mild to moderate idiopathic Parkinson's disease, half of whom reported one or more episodes of hallucinations/unusual perceptual experiences in the past month, with a letter-identification task that determined the contrast level required to achieve 80% accuracy. Contrast sensitivity was further assessed with a chart that presented stimuli at multiple spatial frequencies. The groups were closely matched for demographic and clinical characteristics except for experience of hallucinations. RESULTS: Relative to participants without visual hallucinations, those with hallucinations had poorer spatial frequency contrast sensitivity and required significantly greater contrast to correctly identify the letters on the identification task. Specifically, participants with hallucinations required a mean contrast of 52.8%, whereas participants without hallucinations required 35.0%. When given sufficient contrast, the groups with and without hallucinations were equally accurate in letter identification. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to those without hallucinations, individuals with Parkinson's disease and hallucinations without dementia showed poorer contrast sensitivity. Once contrast was individually enhanced, the groups were equally accurate at object identification. These findings suggest the potential of visual perception tests to predict, and perception-based interventions to reduce, hallucinations in Parkinson's disease.

Native Spanish-speaker's test performance and the effects of Spanish-English bilingualism: results from the neuropsychological norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project.

Objective: We aimed to investigate whether or not demographically-corrected test scores derived from the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) would be less accurate if applied to Spanish-speakers with various degrees of English fluency. Spanish-English Method: One hundred and seventy primarily Spanish-speaking adults from the NP-NUMBRS project completed a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery. T-scores adjusted for age, education, and sex (but not degree of bilingualism), were derived for each test utilizing population-specific normative data. English fluency was assessed via the Controlled Oral Word Association Test in English (F-A-S), and Spanish fluency with "P-M-R," and degree of relative English fluency was calculated as the ratio of English language words over total words produced in both languages. Effects of degree of bilingualism on the NUMBRS battery test scores (raw scores and T-scores) were examined via Pearson's product moment correlation coefficients, and language groups (Spanish dominant vs. relative bilingual) were compared on demographically adjusted T-scores via independent samples t-tests. Results: Higher Spanish-English bilingualism was associated with higher education and SES, and was significantly associated with higher raw scores on all tests, but only associated with higher T-scores on a limited number of tests (i.e., WAIS-III Digit Symbol, Symbol Search, Letter-Number Sequencing and Trails B). Conclusion: Degree of Spanish-English bilingualism generally did not account for significant variance in the normed tests beyond the standard demographic adjustments on most tests. Overall, the normative adjustments provided by the NP-NUMBRS project appear applicable to native Spanish speakers from the U.S.-Mexico border region with various degrees of Spanish-English bilingualism.

Updated demographically adjusted norms for the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-revised and Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-revised in Spanish-speakers from the U.S.-Mexico border region: The NP-NUMBRS project.

OBJECTIVE: We generated demographically adjusted norms for the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-revised (BVMT-R) and the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-revised (HVLT-R) for Spanish-speakers from the U.S.-Mexico border region as part of a larger normative project. Methods: Healthy native Spanish-speakers (n = 203; Age: 19-60 years; Education: 0-20 years, 59% women) living in Arizona (n = 63) and California (n = 140) completed the BVMT-R and the HVLT-R as part of the larger Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. Raw scores were converted to T-scores utilizing fractional polynomial equations, which considered linear and non-linear effects of demographic variables (age, education, sex). To demonstrate the benefit of employing our population-specific norms, we computed the proportion of our participants whose test performance fell below one standard deviation (T-score < 40) when applying published norms from non-Hispanic English-speakers, compared to the base rate derived from the new normative sample. Results: The resulting demographically adjusted T-scores showed the expected psychometric properties and corrected the misclassification in rates of impairment that were obtained when applying norms based on the English-speaking sample. Unexpectedly, participants in Arizona obtained slightly lower HVLT-R T-scores than those in California. This site effect was not explained by available sociodemographic or language factors. Supplementary formulas were computed adjusting for site in addition to demographics. Conclusions: These updated norms improve accuracy in identification of learning and memory impairment among Spanish-speaking adults living in the U.S.-Mexico border region. It will be important to generate additional data for elders, as the present norms are only applicable to adults age 60 and younger.

Demographically adjusted norms for the Trail Making Test in native Spanish speakers: Results from the neuropsychological norms for the US-Mexico border region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project.

OBJECTIVE: Despite the wide use of the Trail Making Test (TMT), there is a lack of normative data for Spanish speakers living in the USA. Here we describe the development of regional norms for the TMT for native Spanish speakers residing in the Southwest Mexico-Border Region of the USA. METHOD: Participants were 252 healthy native Spanish speakers, 58% women, from ages 19 to 60, and ranging in education from 0 to 20 years, recruited in San Diego, CA and Tucson, AZ. All completed the TMT in Spanish along with a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery as part of their participation in the Neuropsychological Norms for the US-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. Univariable and interactive effects of demographics on test performance were examined. T-scores were calculated using fractional polynomial equations to account for linear and any non-linear effects of age, education, and sex. RESULTS: Older age and lower education were associated with worse scores on both TMT A and B. No sex differences were found. The newly derived T-scores showed no association with demographic variables and displayed the expected 16% rates of impairment using a -1 SD cut point based on a normal distribution. By comparison, published norms for English-speaking non-Hispanic Whites applied to the current data yielded significantly higher impairment for both TMT A and B with more comparable rates using non-Hispanic African Americans norms. CONCLUSIONS: Population-specific, demographically adjusted regional norms improve the utility and diagnostic accuracy of the TMT for use with native Spanish speakers in the US-Mexico Border region.

Introduction to the Neuropsychological Norms for the US-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) Project.

OBJECTIVE: The present introduction to the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project aims to provide an overview of the conceptual framework and rationale that guided the development of this project. METHODS: We describe important aspects of our conceptual framework, which was guided by some of the main purposes of neuropsychological testing, including the identification of underlying brain dysfunction, and the characterization of cognitive strengths and weakness relevant to everyday functioning. We also provide our rationale for focusing this norm development project on Spanish-speakers in the United States, and provide an outline of the articles included in this Special Issue focused on the NP-NUMBRS project. CONCLUSIONS: The data presented in this Special Issue represent an important tool for clinicians and researchers working in the neuropsychological assessment of Spanish-speakers in the United States.

Demographically-adjusted norms for the processing speed subtests of the WAIS-III in a Spanish-speaking adult population: Results from the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project.

OBJECTIVE: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) processing speed subtests are among the most ubiquitous indices of processing speed in the field. The aim of this study was to develop and examine demographically-adjusted normative data for Spanish language versions of the WAIS-III Digit Symbol Coding (DSC) and Symbol Search (SS) subtests for US-dwelling Spanish-speakers living in the US/Mexico border region. METHODS: The sample included 203 healthy participants who were part of the larger Neuropsychological Norms for the US-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project (DSC: n = 201; SS: n = 200). RESULTS: Older age and higher education were both related to lower scores on the DSC and SS subtests (all ps < .0001). There were no significant effects for gender (all ps > .05). Raw-to-scaled score conversions were calculated for both subtests, and fractional polynomial equations were derived to compute demographically-adjusted T-scores accounting for age, education, and gender for each subtest and the Processing Speed Index. Published norms for English-speaking non-Hispanic white adults slightly overestimated impairment rates (T-scores <40) on both the DSC and SS subtests, while the norms for English-speaking non-Hispanic Black/African Americans and the new NP-NUMBRS norms Spanish-speakers both yielded impairment rates that fell within expected limits for healthy controls (i.e. 13%-14%). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that population-specific normative data can improve the diagnostic validity of these measures for U.S.-dwelling Spanish-speakers living in the US/Mexico border region. Future research is needed to investigate the utility of these norms for other U.S.-dwelling Spanish-speaking subpopulations (e.g. Caribbean, Central American, South American).

The Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) Project: Overview and considerations for life span research and evidence-based practice.

OBJECTIVE: This paper summarizes the findings of the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) Project and offers a roadmap for future research. METHODS: The NP-NUMBRS project represents the largest and most comprehensive co-normed neuropsychological battery to date for native Spanish-speaking healthy adults from the U.S. (California/Arizona)-Mexico borderland region (N = 254; ages 19-60 years). These norms provide demographic adjustments for tests across numerous domains (i.e., verbal fluency, processing speed, attention/working memory, executive function, episodic memory [learning and delayed recall], visuospatial, and fine motor skills). CONCLUSIONS: This project: 1) shows that the NP-NUMBRS norms consistently outperformed previously published norms for English-speaking non-Hispanic (White and African-American) adults in identifying impairment; 2) explores the role of Spanish-English bilingualism in test performance; and 3) provides support for the diagnostic validity of these norms in detecting HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment. Study limitations include the limited assessment of sociocultural variables and generalizability (e.g., other Latina/o populations, age limit [19 - 60 years]). Future research is needed to: 1) investigate these norms with U.S.-dwelling Spanish-speakers of non-Mexican heritage and other clinical subpopulations; 2) expand coverage of cognitive domains (e.g. language, visuospatial); 3) develop large normative datasets for children and older Latina/o populations; 4) examine how sociocultural factors impact performance (e.g., bilingualism, acculturation); 5) investigate these norms' diagnostic and ecological validity; and 6) develop norms for neurocognitive change across time. It is hoped that the NP-NUMBRS norms will aid researchers and clinicians working with U.S.-dwelling Spanish-speakers from the U.S.-Mexico borderland to conduct research and evidence-based neuropsychological evaluations in a more culturally responsive and ethical manner.

Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) Project: Methodology and sample characteristics.

OBJECTIVE: The present paper describes the methodology and sample characteristics of the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) Project, which aimed to generate demographically-adjusted norms for a battery of neuropsychological tests in this population. METHODS: The sample consisted of 254 healthy Spanish-speakers, ages 19-60 years, recruited from the U.S.-Mexico border regions of Arizona (n = 102) and California (n = 152). Participants completed a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery assessing multiple domains (verbal fluency, speed of information processing, attention/working memory, executive function, learning and memory, visual-spatial skills and fine motor skills). Fluency in both Spanish and English was assessed with performance-based measures. Other culturally-relevant data on educational, social, and language background were obtained via self-report. Demographic influences on test performances were modeled using fractional polynomial equations that allow consideration of linear and non-linear effects. RESULTS: There were no significant demographic differences between participants tested in Arizona and California. Age and gender were similar across education ranges. Two thirds of the sample were Spanish dominant and the remainder were considered bilingual. Individual articles in this Special Issue detail the generation of demographically adjusted T-scores for the various tests in the battery as well as an exploration of bilingualism effects. DISCUSSION: Norms developed through the NP-NUMBRS project stand to improve the diagnostic accuracy of neuropsychological assessment in Spanish-speaking young-to-middle-aged adults living in the U.S.-Mexico border region. Application of the present norms to other groups should be done with caution.

Hemodynamic latency is associated with reduced intelligence across the lifespan: an fMRI DCM study of aging, cerebrovascular integrity, and cognitive ability.

Changes in neurovascular coupling are associated with both Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia in later life, but this may be confounded by cerebrovascular risk. We hypothesized that hemodynamic latency would be associated with reduced cognitive functioning across the lifespan, holding constant demographic and cerebrovascular risk. In 387 adults aged 18-85 (mean = 48.82), dynamic causal modeling was used to estimate the hemodynamic response function in the left and right V1 and V3-ventral regions of the visual cortex in response to a simple checkerboard block design stimulus with minimal cognitive demands. The hemodynamic latency (transit time) in the visual cortex was used to predict general cognitive ability (Full-Scale IQ), controlling for demographic variables (age, race, education, socioeconomic status) and cerebrovascular risk factors (hypertension, alcohol use, smoking, high cholesterol, BMI, type 2 diabetes, cardiac disorders). Increased hemodynamic latency in the visual cortex predicted reduced cognitive function (p < 0.05), holding constant demographic and cerebrovascular risk. Increased alcohol use was associated with reduced overall cognitive function (Full Scale IQ 2.8 pts, p < 0.05), while cardiac disorders (Full Scale IQ 3.3 IQ pts; p < 0.05), high cholesterol (Full Scale IQ 3.9 pts; p < 0.05), and years of education (2 IQ pts/year; p < 0.001) were associated with higher general cognitive ability. Increased hemodynamic latency was associated with reduced executive functioning (p < 0.05) as well as reductions in verbal concept formation (p < 0.05) and the ability to synthesize and analyze abstract visual information (p < 0.01). Hemodynamic latency is associated with reduced cognitive ability across the lifespan, independently of other demographic and cerebrovascular risk factors. Vascular health may predict cognitive ability long before the onset of dementias.

Bistable perception in normal aging: perceptual reversibility and its relation to cognition.

The effects of age on the ability to resolve perceptual ambiguity are unknown, though it depends on frontoparietal attentional networks known to change with age. We presented the bistable Necker cube to 24 middle-aged and OAs (older adults; 56-78 years) and 20 YAs (younger adults; 18-24 years) under passive-viewing and volitional control conditions: Hold one cube percept and Switch between cube percepts. During passive viewing, OAs had longer dominance durations (time spent on each percept) than YAs. In the Hold condition, OAs were less able than YAs to increase dominance durations. In the Switch condition, OAs and YAs did not differ in performance. Dominance durations in either condition correlated with performance on tests of executive function mediated by the frontal lobes. Eye movements (fixation deviations) did not differ between groups. These results suggest that OAs' reduced ability to hold a percept may arise from reduced selective attention. The lack of correlation of performance between Hold and executive-function measures suggests at least a partial segregation of underlying mechanisms.