COVID-19 Vaccination Coverage - World Health Organization African Region, 2021-2023.

With the availability of authorized COVID-19 vaccines in early 2021, vaccination became an effective tool to reduce COVID-19-associated morbidity and mortality. Initially, the World Health Organization (WHO) set an ambitious target to vaccinate 70% of the global population by mid-2022. However, in July 2022, WHO recommended that all countries, including those in the African Region, prioritize COVID-19 vaccination of high-risk groups, including older adults and health care workers, to have the greatest impact on morbidity and mortality. As of December 31, 2023, approximately 860 million doses of COVID-19 vaccine had been delivered to countries in the African Region, and 646 million doses had been administered. Cumulatively, 38% of the African Region's population had received ≥1 dose, 32% had completed a primary series, and 21% had received ≥1 booster dose. Cumulative total population coverage with ≥1 dose ranged by country from 0.3% to 89%. Coverage with the primary series among older age groups was 52% (range among countries = 15%-96%); primary series coverage among health care workers was 48% (range = 13%-99%). Although the COVID-19 public health emergency of international concern was declared over in May 2023, current WHO recommendations reinforce the need to vaccinate priority populations at highest risk for severe COVID-19 disease and death and build more sustainable programs by integrating COVID-19 vaccination into primary health care, strengthening immunization across the life course, and improving pandemic preparedness.

Effects of COVID-19 on Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance Systems in the World Health Organization African Region, 2020.

Global emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 curtailed vaccine-preventable disease (VPD) surveillance activities, but little is known about which surveillance components were most affected. In May 2021, we surveyed 214 STOP (originally Stop Transmission of Polio) Program consultants to determine how VPD surveillance activities were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic throughout 2020, primarily in low- and middle-income countries, where program consultants are deployed. Our report highlights the responses from 154 (96%) of the 160 consultants deployed to the World Health Organization African Region, which comprises 75% (160/214) of all STOP Program consultants deployed globally in early 2021. Most survey respondents observed that VPD surveillance activities were somewhat or severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Reprioritization of surveillance staff and changes in health-seeking behaviors were factors commonly perceived to decrease VPD surveillance activities. Our findings suggest the need for strategies to restore VPD surveillance to prepandemic levels.

Mitigation Policies and COVID-19-Associated Mortality - 37 European Countries, January 23-June 30, 2020.

As cases and deaths from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Europe rose sharply in late March, most European countries implemented strict mitigation policies, including closure of nonessential businesses and mandatory stay-at-home orders. These policies were largely successful at curbing transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19 (1), but they came with social and economic costs, including increases in unemployment, interrupted education, social isolation, and related psychosocial outcomes (2,3). A better understanding of when and how these policies were effective is needed. Using data from 37 European countries, the impact of the timing of these mitigation policies on mortality from COVID-19 was evaluated. Linear regression was used to assess the association between policy stringency at an early time point and cumulative mortality per 100,000 persons on June 30. Implementation of policies earlier in the course of the outbreak was associated with lower COVID-19-associated mortality during the subsequent months. An increase by one standard deviation in policy stringency at an early timepoint was associated with 12.5 cumulative fewer deaths per 100,000 on June 30. Countries that implemented stringent policies earlier might have saved several thousand lives relative to those countries that implemented similar policies, but later. Earlier implementation of mitigation policies, even by just a few weeks, might be an important strategy to reduce the number of deaths from COVID-19.

Anatomically robust proton therapy using multiple planning computed tomography scans for locally advanced prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Proton therapy (PT) is sensitive towards anatomical changes that may occur during a treatment course. The aim of this study was to investigate if anatomically robust PT (ARPT) plans incorporating patient-specific target motion improved target coverage while still sparing normal tissues, when applied on locally advanced prostate cancer patients where pelvic irradiation is indicated. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A planning computed tomography (CT) scan used for dose calculation and two additional CTs (acquired on different days) were used to make patient-specific targets for the ARPT plans on the eight included patients. The plans were compared to a conventional robust PT plan and a volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) photon plan, which were derived from the planning CT (pCT). Worst-case robust optimisation was used for all proton plans with a setup uncertainty of 5 mm and a range uncertainty of 3.5%. Target coverage (V95% and D95%) and normal tissue doses (V5-75 Gy) were evaluated on 6-8 rCTs per patient. RESULTS: The ARPT plans improved the prostate target coverage for the most challenging patient compared to conventional robust PT plans (20% point increase for V95% and 31 Gy increase for D95%). Across the whole cohort the estimated mean value for V95% was 97% for the ARPT plans and 95% for the conventional robust PT plans. The ARPT plans had a slight, statistically insignificant increase in normal tissue doses compared to the conventional robust proton plans. Compared to VMAT, the ARPT plans significantly reduced the normal tissue doses in the low-to-intermediate dose range. CONCLUSIONS: While both proton plans reduced the low-to-intermediate normal tissue doses compared to VMAT, ARPT plans improved the target coverage for the most challenging patient without significantly increasing the normal tissue doses compared to conventional robust PT plans.

Ebola: Anatomy of an Epidemic.

As of the end of March 2016, the West Africa epidemic of Ebola virus disease (Ebola) had resulted in a total of 28,646 cases, 11,323 of them fatal, reported to the World Health Organization. Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone were most heavily affected, but Ebola cases were exported to several other African and European countries as well as the United States, with limited further transmission, including to healthcare workers. We review the descriptive epidemiology of the outbreak, novel aspects and insights concerning the unprecedented response, scientific observations, and public health implications. The large number of Ebola survivors has highlighted the frequency of persistent symptoms and the possibility of virus persistence in sanctuary sites, sometimes leading to delayed transmission. Although transmission appears to have ceased in 2016, the West Africa Ebola epidemic has profoundly influenced discussions and practice concerning global health security.

Using Acute Flaccid Paralysis Surveillance as a Platform for Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance.

Surveillance for acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) is a fundamental cornerstone of the global polio eradication initiative (GPEI). Active surveillance (with visits to health facilities) is a critical strategy of AFP surveillance systems for highly sensitive and timely detection of cases. Because of the extensive resources devoted to AFP surveillance, multiple opportunities exist for additional diseases to be added using GPEI assets, particularly because there is generally 1 district officer responsible for all disease surveillance. For this reason, integrated surveillance has become a standard practice in many countries, ranging from adding surveillance for measles and rubella to integrated disease surveillance for outbreak-prone diseases (integrated disease surveillance and response). This report outlines the current level of disease surveillance integration in 3 countries (Nepal, India, and Nigeria) and proposes that resources continue for long-term maintenance in resource-poor countries of AFP surveillance as a platform for surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases and other outbreak-prone diseases.

Ebola Virus Persistence in Breast Milk After No Reported Illness: A Likely Source of Virus Transmission From Mother to Child.

A 9-month-old infant died from Ebola virus (EBOV) disease with unknown epidemiological link. While her parents did not report previous illness, laboratory investigations revealed persisting EBOV RNA in the mother's breast milk and the father's seminal fluid. Genomic analysis strongly suggests EBOV transmission to the child through breastfeeding.

US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Its Partners' Contributions to Global Health Security.

To achieve compliance with the revised World Health Organization International Health Regulations (IHR 2005), countries must be able to rapidly prevent, detect, and respond to public health threats. Most nations, however, remain unprepared to manage and control complex health emergencies, whether due to natural disasters, emerging infectious disease outbreaks, or the inadvertent or intentional release of highly pathogenic organisms. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) works with countries and partners to build and strengthen global health security preparedness so they can quickly respond to public health crises. This report highlights selected CDC global health protection platform accomplishments that help mitigate global health threats and build core, cross-cutting capacity to identify and contain disease outbreaks at their source. CDC contributions support country efforts to achieve IHR 2005 compliance, contribute to the international framework for countering infectious disease crises, and enhance health security for Americans and populations around the world.

Resurgence of Ebola Virus Disease in Guinea Linked to a Survivor With Virus Persistence in Seminal Fluid for More Than 500 Days.

We report on an Ebola virus disease (EVD) survivor who showed Ebola virus in seminal fluid 531 days after onset of disease. The persisting virus was sexually transmitted in February 2016, about 470 days after onset of symptoms, and caused a new cluster of EVD in Guinea and Liberia.

Epidemiology of Epidemic Ebola Virus Disease in Conakry and Surrounding Prefectures, Guinea, 2014-2015.

In 2014, Ebola virus disease (EVD) in West Africa was first reported during March in 3 southeastern prefectures in Guinea; from there, the disease rapidly spread across West Africa. We describe the epidemiology of EVD cases reported in Guinea's capital, Conakry, and 4 surrounding prefectures (Coyah, Dubreka, Forecariah, and Kindia), encompassing a full year of the epidemic. A total of 1,355 EVD cases, representing ≈40% of cases reported in Guinea, originated from these areas. Overall, Forecariah had the highest cumulative incidence (4× higher than that in Conakry). Case-fatality percentage ranged from 40% in Conakry to 60% in Kindia. Cumulative incidence was slightly higher among male than female residents, although incidences by prefecture and commune differed by sex. Over the course of the year, Conakry and neighboring prefectures became the EVD epicenter in Guinea.

Secondary Infections with Ebola Virus in Rural Communities, Liberia and Guinea, 2014-2015.

Persons who died of Ebola virus disease at home in rural communities in Liberia and Guinea resulted in more secondary infections than persons admitted to Ebola treatment units. Intensified monitoring of contacts of persons who died of this disease in the community is an evidence-based approach to reduce virus transmission in rural communities.

Exposure Patterns Driving Ebola Transmission in West Africa: A Retrospective Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: The ongoing West African Ebola epidemic began in December 2013 in Guinea, probably from a single zoonotic introduction. As a result of ineffective initial control efforts, an Ebola outbreak of unprecedented scale emerged. As of 4 May 2015, it had resulted in more than 19,000 probable and confirmed Ebola cases, mainly in Guinea (3,529), Liberia (5,343), and Sierra Leone (10,746). Here, we present analyses of data collected during the outbreak identifying drivers of transmission and highlighting areas where control could be improved. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Over 19,000 confirmed and probable Ebola cases were reported in West Africa by 4 May 2015. Individuals with confirmed or probable Ebola ("cases") were asked if they had exposure to other potential Ebola cases ("potential source contacts") in a funeral or non-funeral context prior to becoming ill. We performed retrospective analyses of a case line-list, collated from national databases of case investigation forms that have been reported to WHO. These analyses were initially performed to assist WHO's response during the epidemic, and have been updated for publication. We analysed data from 3,529 cases in Guinea, 5,343 in Liberia, and 10,746 in Sierra Leone; exposures were reported by 33% of cases. The proportion of cases reporting a funeral exposure decreased over time. We found a positive correlation (r = 0.35, p < 0.001) between this proportion in a given district for a given month and the within-district transmission intensity, quantified by the estimated reproduction number (R). We also found a negative correlation (r = -0.37, p < 0.001) between R and the district proportion of hospitalised cases admitted within ≤4 days of symptom onset. These two proportions were not correlated, suggesting that reduced funeral attendance and faster hospitalisation independently influenced local transmission intensity. We were able to identify 14% of potential source contacts as cases in the case line-list. Linking cases to the contacts who potentially infected them provided information on the transmission network. This revealed a high degree of heterogeneity in inferred transmissions, with only 20% of cases accounting for at least 73% of new infections, a phenomenon often called super-spreading. Multivariable regression models allowed us to identify predictors of being named as a potential source contact. These were similar for funeral and non-funeral contacts: severe symptoms, death, non-hospitalisation, older age, and travelling prior to symptom onset. Non-funeral exposures were strongly peaked around the death of the contact. There was evidence that hospitalisation reduced but did not eliminate onward exposures. We found that Ebola treatment units were better than other health care facilities at preventing exposure from hospitalised and deceased individuals. The principal limitation of our analysis is limited data quality, with cases not being entered into the database, cases not reporting exposures, or data being entered incorrectly (especially dates, and possible misclassifications). CONCLUSIONS: Achieving elimination of Ebola is challenging, partly because of super-spreading. Safe funeral practices and fast hospitalisation contributed to the containment of this Ebola epidemic. Continued real-time data capture, reporting, and analysis are vital to track transmission patterns, inform resource deployment, and thus hasten and maintain elimination of the virus from the human population.

Genotypes of rubella virus and the epidemiology of rubella infections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2004-2013.

Rubella is a viral infection that may cause fetal death or congenital defects, known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS), during early pregnancy. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that countries assess the burden of rubella and CRS, including the determination of genotypes of circulating viruses. The goal of this study was to identify the genotypes of rubella viruses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Serum or throat swab samples were collected through the measles surveillance system. Sera that tested negative for measles IgM antibody were tested for rubella IgM antibody. Serum collected within 4 days of rash onset and throat swabs were screened by real-time RT-PCR for rubella virus RNA. For positive samples, an amplicon of the E1 glycoprotein gene was amplified by RT-PCR and sequenced. 11733 sera were tested for rubella IgM and 2816 (24%) were positive; 145 (5%) were tested for the presence of rubella RNA by real-time RT-PCR and 10 (7%) were positive. Seventeen throat swabs were analyzed by RT-PCR and three were positive. Sequences were obtained from eight of the positive samples. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the DRC rubella viruses belonged to genotypes 1B, 1E, 1G, and 2B. This report provides the first information on the genotypes of rubella virus circulating in the DRC. These data contribute to a better understanding of rubella burden and the dynamics of rubella virus circulation in Africa. Efforts to establish rubella surveillance in the DRC are needed to support rubella elimination in Africa. J. Med. Virol. 88:1677-1684, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Strengthening laboratory capacity through the surveillance of rotavirus gastroenteritis in Central Africa: the Surveillance Épidémiologique en Afrique Centrale (SURVAC) Project.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of the SURVAC pilot project was to strengthen disease surveillance and response in three countries; Cameroon (CAE), Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Central African Republic (CAR). METHODS: Seven laboratories involved in rotavirus surveillance were provided with equipment, reagents and supplies. CDC and WHO staff provided on-site classroom and bench training in biosafety, quality assurance, quality control (QC), rotavirus diagnosis using Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) and genotyping of rotavirus strains using the Reverse Transcription Polymerase-chain reaction (RT-PCR). All laboratory data were reported through WHO/AFRO. RESULTS: Twenty-three staff members were trained on RT-PCR for rotavirus genotyping which was introduced for the first time in all three countries. In CAE, the number of samples analysed by EIA and RT-PCR increased tenfold between 2007 and 2013. In DRC, this number increased fivefold, from 2009 to 2013 whereas in CAR, it increased fourfold between 2011 and 2013. All laboratories passed WHO proficiency testing in 2014. CONCLUSION: Laboratory capacity was strengthened through equipping laboratories and strengthening a subregional laboratory workforce for surveillance of rotavirus gastroenteritis. Each of the three countries generated rotavirus surveillance and genotyping data enabling the mapping of circulating genotypes. These results will help monitor the impact of rotavirus vaccination in these countries.

Evaluation of a National Call Center and a Local Alerts System for Detection of New Cases of Ebola Virus Disease - Guinea, 2014-2015.

The epidemic of Ebola virus disease (Ebola) in West Africa began in Guinea in late 2013 (1), and on August 8, 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the epidemic a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (2). Guinea was declared Ebola-free on December 29, 2015, and is under a 90 day period of enhanced surveillance, following 3,351 confirmed and 453 probable cases of Ebola and 2,536 deaths (3). Passive surveillance for Ebola in Guinea has been conducted principally through the use of a telephone alert system. Community members and health facilities report deaths and suspected Ebola cases to local alert numbers operated by prefecture health departments or to a national toll-free call center. The national call center additionally functions as a source of public health information by responding to questions from the public about Ebola. To evaluate the sensitivity of the two systems and compare the sensitivity of the national call center with the local alerts system, the CDC country team performed probabilistic record linkage of the combined prefecture alerts database, as well as the national call center database, with the national viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) database; the VHF database contains records of all known confirmed Ebola cases. Among 17,309 alert calls analyzed from the national call center, 71 were linked to 1,838 confirmed Ebola cases in the VHF database, yielding a sensitivity of 3.9%. The sensitivity of the national call center was highest in the capital city of Conakry (11.4%) and lower in other prefectures. In comparison, the local alerts system had a sensitivity of 51.1%. Local public health infrastructure plays an important role in surveillance in an epidemic setting.

Contact Tracing Activities during the Ebola Virus Disease Epidemic in Kindia and Faranah, Guinea, 2014.

The largest recorded Ebola virus disease epidemic began in March 2014; as of July 2015, it continued in 3 principally affected countries: Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Control efforts include contact tracing to expedite identification of the virus in suspect case-patients. We examined contact tracing activities during September 20-December 31, 2014, in 2 prefectures of Guinea using national and local data about case-patients and their contacts. Results show less than one third of case-patients (28.3% and 31.1%) were registered as contacts before case identification; approximately two thirds (61.1% and 67.7%) had no registered contacts. Time to isolation of suspected case-patients was not immediate (median 5 and 3 days for Kindia and Faranah, respectively), and secondary attack rates varied by relationships of persons who had contact with the source case-patient and the type of case-patient to which a contact was exposed. More complete contact tracing efforts are needed to augment control of this epidemic.

Ebola transmission linked to a single traditional funeral ceremony - Kissidougou, Guinea, December, 2014-January 2015.

On December 18, 2014, the Guinea Ministry of Health was notified by local public health authorities in Kissidougou, a prefecture in southeastern Guinea (pop. 284,000), that the number of cases of Ebola virus disease (Ebola) had increased from one case reported during December 8-14, 2014, to 62 cases reported during December 15-21. Kissidougou is one of the four Guinea prefectures (the others are Macenta, Gueckedou, and Conakry) where Ebola was first reported in West Africa in March 2014, and the mid-December increase was the largest documented by any prefecture in Guinea in a single week since the beginning of the epidemic. The Guinea Ministry of Health requested assistance from CDC and the World Health Organization to investigate the local outbreak, identify and isolate persons with suspected Ebola, assess transmission chains, and implement control measures. The investigation found that 85 confirmed Ebola cases were linked to one traditional funeral ceremony, including 62 (73%) cases reported during December 15-21. No additional cases related to this funeral ceremony were reported after January 10, 2015. After the outbreak was identified, rapid implementation of interventions limited additional Ebola virus transmission. Improved training for prompt reporting of cases, investigation, and contact tracing, and community acceptance of safe burial methods can reduce the risk for Ebola transmission in rural communities.

Global VAX: A U.S. contribution to global COVID-19 vaccination efforts, 2021-2023.

In December 2021 the U.S. Government announced a new, whole-of-government $1.8 billion effort, the Initiative for Global Vaccine Access (Global VAX) in response to the global COVID-19 pandemic. Using the foundation of decades of U.S. government investments in global health and working in close partnership with local governments and key global and multilateral organizations, Global VAX enabled the rapid acceleration of the global COVID-19 vaccine rollout in selected countries, contributing to increased COVID-19 vaccine coverage in some of the world's most vulnerable communities. Through Global VAX, the U.S. Government has supported 125 countries to scale up COVID-19 vaccine delivery and administration while strengthening primary health care systems to respond to future health crises. The progress made by Global VAX has paved the way for a stronger global recovery and improved global health security.

Field investigation of high reported non-neonatal tetanus burden in Uganda, 2016-2017.

BACKGROUND: Despite providing tetanus-toxoid-containing vaccine (TTCV) to infants and reproductive-age women, Uganda reports one of the highest incidences of non-neonatal tetanus (non-NT). Prompted by unusual epidemiologic trends among reported non-NT cases, we conducted a retrospective record review to see whether these data reflected true disease burden. METHODS: We analysed nationally reported non-NT cases during 2012-2017. We visited 26 facilities (14 hospitals, 12 health centres) reporting high numbers of non-NT cases (n = 20) or zero cases (n = 6). We identified non-NT cases in facility registers during 1 January 2016-30 June 2017; the identified case records were abstracted. RESULTS: During 2012-2017, a total of 24 518 non-NT cases were reported and 74% were ≥5 years old. The average annual incidence was 3.43 per 100 000 population based on inpatient admissions. Among 482 non-NT inpatient cases reported during 1 January 2016-30 June 2017 from hospitals visited, 342 (71%) were identified in facility registers, despite missing register data (21%). Males comprised 283 (83%) of identified cases and 60% were ≥15 years old. Of 145 cases with detailed records, 134 (92%) were clinically confirmed tetanus; among these, the case-fatality ratio (CFR) was 54%. Fourteen cases were identified at two hospitals reporting zero cases. Among >4000 outpatient cases reported from health centres visited, only 3 cases were identified; the remainder were data errors. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial number of non-NT cases and deaths occur in Uganda. The high CFR and high non-NT burden among men and older children indicate the need for TTCV booster doses across the life course to all individuals as well as improved coverage with the TTCV primary series. The observed data errors indicate the need for data quality improvement activities.

Comprehensive Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance in the Western Pacific Region: A Literature Review on Integration of Surveillance Functions, 2000-2021.

INTRODUCTION: A strategic framework for 2021-2030 developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for the Western Pacific emphasizes the need for high-quality and integrated vaccine-preventable disease (VPD) surveillance. We conducted a literature review to document the barriers, enabling factors, and innovations for integrating surveillance functions for VPDs and other communicable diseases in Western Pacific Region (WPR) countries. METHODS: We searched published and gray literature on integrated VPD surveillance from 2000 to 2021. Articles in English, Spanish, or French were screened to identify those relating to VPD surveillance in a WPR country and not meeting defined exclusion criteria. We categorized articles using the 8 WHO surveillance support functions and abstracted data on the country; type of surveillance; and reported barriers, enabling factors, and best practices for integration. RESULTS: Of the 3,137 references screened, 87 met the eligibility criteria. Of the 8 surveillance support functions, the proportion of references that reported integration related to the laboratory was 56%, followed by workforce capacity (54%), governance (51%), data management and use (47%), field logistics and communication (47%), coordination (15%), program management (13%), and supervision (9%). Several references noted fragmented systems and a lack of coordination between units as barriers to integration, highlighting the importance of engagement across public health units and between the public and private sectors. The literature also indicated a need for interoperable information systems and revealed the use of promising new technologies for data reporting and laboratory testing. In some WPR countries, workforce capacity was strengthened at all administrative levels by the implementation of integrated trainings on data monitoring and use and on laboratory techniques applicable to multiple VPDs. CONCLUSION: This literature review supports integrating VPDs into broader communicable disease surveillance systems in WPR countries while ensuring that the minimal WHO-recommended standards for VPD surveillance are met.