Genetic rescue by distant trees mitigates qualitative pollen limitation imposed by fine-scale spatial genetic structure.

Restricted seed dispersal frequently leads to fine-scale spatial genetic structure (i.e., FSGS) within plant populations. Depending on its spatial extent and the mobility of pollinators, this inflated kinship at the immediate neighbourhood can critically impoverish pollen quality. Despite the common occurrence of positive FSGS within plant populations, our knowledge regarding the role of long-distance pollination preventing reproductive failure is still limited. Using microsatellite markers, we examined the existence of positive FSGS in two low-density populations of the tree Pyrus bourgaeana. We also designed controlled crosses among trees differing in their kinship to investigate the effects of increased local kinship on plant reproduction. We used six pollination treatments and fully monitored fruit production, fruit and seed weight, proportion of mature seeds per fruit, and seed germination. Our results revealed positive FSGS in both study populations and lower fruit initiation in flowers pollinated with pollen from highly-genetically related individuals within the neighbourhood, with this trend intensifying as the fruit development progressed. Besides, open-pollinated flowers exhibited lower performance compared to those pollinated by distant pollen donors, suggesting intense qualitative pollen limitation in natural populations. We found positive fine-scale spatial genetic structure is translated into impoverished pollen quality from nearby pollen donors which negatively impacts the reproductive success of trees in low-density populations. Under this scenario of intrapopulation genetic rescue by distant pollen donors, the relevance of highly-mobile pollinators for connecting spatially and genetically distant patches of trees may be crucial to safeguarding population recruitment.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Genetic Variation in the Iberian Lynx along Its Path to Extinction Reconstructed with Ancient DNA.

There is the tendency to assume that endangered species have been both genetically and demographically healthier in the past, so that any genetic erosion observed today was caused by their recent decline. The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) suffered a dramatic and continuous decline during the 20th century, and now shows extremely low genome- and species-wide genetic diversity among other signs of genomic erosion. We analyze ancient (N = 10), historical (N = 245), and contemporary (N = 172) samples with microsatellite and mitogenome data to reconstruct the species' demography and investigate patterns of genetic variation across space and time. Iberian lynx populations transitioned from low but significantly higher genetic diversity than today and shallow geographical differentiation millennia ago, through a structured metapopulation with varying levels of diversity during the last centuries, to two extremely genetically depauperate and differentiated remnant populations by 2002. The historical subpopulations show varying extents of genetic drift in relation to their recent size and time in isolation, but these do not predict whether the populations persisted or went finally extinct. In conclusion, current genetic patterns were mainly shaped by genetic drift, supporting the current admixture of the two genetic pools and calling for a comprehensive genetic management of the ongoing conservation program. This study illustrates how a retrospective analysis of demographic and genetic patterns of endangered species can shed light onto their evolutionary history and this, in turn, can inform conservation actions.

Spatio-temporal arrangement of Chamaerops humilis inflorescences and occupancy patterns by its nursery pollinator, Derelomus chamaeropsis.

Background and Aims: Nursery pollination is a highly specialized interaction in which pollinators breed inside plant reproductive structures. Pollinator occupancy of host plants often depends on plant location, flowering synchrony and sex. The nursery pollination system between the dioecious dwarf palm Chamaerops humilis (Arecaceae) and the host-specific palm flower weevil Derelomus chamaeropsis was investigated. For the first time, sex, flowering synchrony and spatial distribution of plants was related to the occupancy probability and the abundance of D. chamaeropsis larvae, important traits influencing both pollinator and plant fitness. Methods: During the flowering season, all inflorescences in anthesis were counted every 12 d and a flowering synchrony index was calculated taking into account all possible correlations with generalized linear mixed models. To analyse the spatial structure of plants, larva occupancy and abundance, different techniques of spatial point pattern analysis were used. Key results: In total, 5986 larvae in 1063 C. humilis inflorescences were recorded over three consecutive seasons. Male inflorescences showed a higher presence and abundance of weevil larvae than females, but interestingly approx. 30 % of the females held larvae. Also, larvae occurred mainly in highly synchronous plants with a low number of inflorescences, perhaps because those plants did not lead to a resource dilution effect. There was no evidence of spatial patterns in larva occupancy or abundance at any spatial scale, suggesting high dispersal ability of adult weevil. Conclusions: The results in a nursery-pollinated dioecious palm demonstrate that plant sex, flowering display and flowering synchrony act as additive forces influencing the presence and abundance of the specialized pollinator larvae. Contradicting previous results, clear evidence that female dwarf palms also provide rewarding oviposition sites was found, and thus the plant 'pays' for the pollination services. The findings highlight that plant local aggregation is not always the main determinant of pollinator attraction, whereas flower traits and phenology could be critical in specialized plant-pollinator interactions.

Strong among population variation in frugivory strength by functional diverse frugivores: a 'reciprocal translocation' experiment.

Fruit-frugivore interactions are critical for the dynamics and evolution of many plant communities. The strength of the interactions between a given plant species and different frugivore guilds (e.g., seed dispersers, seed predators) often vary in space due to changes in plant extrinsic factors (e.g., frugivore abundances) and plant traits (e.g., fruit size and reward). By reciprocally translocating Pyrus bourgaeana ripe fruits representative of five Mediterranean localities during 2 consecutive years, we experimentally quantified guild-specific variations among populations in frugivory strength, while accounted for plant-intrinsic and- extrinsic factors. Though overall fruit removal did not differ among localities, there were strong guild-specific differences in fruit removal strength. Fruit removal by pulp feeders, seed dispersers, and fruit predators varied among populations up to 8.5-, 5.6-, and 4.0-folds, respectively. These strong variations seemed mediated by changes in frugivore relative abundances rather than on availability of alternative fruits. As expected, all fruit traits considered (e.g., fruit size, pulp amount) markedly varied among tree populations. However, no frugivore guild showed preference for fruits from any locality, suggesting that fruit traits did not contribute much to differences in frugivory strength among populations. Since the functional diverse frugivore guilds played contrasting roles in P. bourgaeana dynamics (e.g., seed dispersal vs. seed predation), our study highlights the importance of accounting for functional diversity in frugivore guilds when estimating spatial variations in the strenght of seed dispersal. This investigation also illustrates a neglected but widely applicable experimental approach to identify the relative importance of extrinsic factors and fruit traits in mediating fruit-frugivore interactions.

Historical citizen science to understand and predict climate-driven trout decline.

Historical species records offer an excellent opportunity to test the predictive ability of range forecasts under climate change, but researchers often consider that historical records are scarce and unreliable, besides the datasets collected by renowned naturalists. Here, we demonstrate the relevance of biodiversity records developed through citizen-science initiatives generated outside the natural sciences academia. We used a Spanish geographical dictionary from the mid-nineteenth century to compile over 10 000 freshwater fish records, including almost 4 000 brown trout (Salmo trutta) citations, and constructed a historical presence-absence dataset covering over 2 000 10 × 10 km cells, which is comparable to present-day data. There has been a clear reduction in trout range in the past 150 years, coinciding with a generalized warming. We show that current trout distribution can be accurately predicted based on historical records and past and present values of three air temperature variables. The models indicate a consistent decline of average suitability of around 25% between 1850s and 2000s, which is expected to surpass 40% by the 2050s. We stress the largely unexplored potential of historical species records from non-academic sources to open new pathways for long-term global change science.

Staying cool or staying safe in a human-dominated landscape: which is more relevant for brown bears?

Pigeon et al. (2016) Staying cool in a changing landscape: the influence of maximum daily ambient temperature on grizzly bear habitat selection. Oecologia 181:1101. doi: 10.1007/s00442-016-3630-5 analyzed the effect of ambient temperature on the habitat selection of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in Alberta, Canada. They concluded that temperature played a significant role in bear habitat selection and that it was unlikely that human activity introduced biases to the habitat selection of bears. However, Pigeon et al. did not consider variables related to human activities in their analyses. They also misinterpreted previous research that has accounted for temperature in the habitat selection of brown bears. There is much literature published on the negative effects of human disturbance on wildlife in general and on bears in particular. Downplaying the role of human disturbance could have important negative consequences if, in fact, human disturbance were a more important factor than thermoregulation. Indeed, dismissing the importance of human influence, in the face of contradictory evidence, could tempt managers to disregard an important factor that is difficult and often unpopular to deal with in their conservation plans.

Variability in primary productivity determines metapopulation dynamics.

Temporal variability in primary productivity can change habitat quality for consumer species by affecting the energy levels available as food resources. However, it remains unclear how habitat-quality fluctuations may determine the dynamics of spatially structured populations, where the effects of habitat size, quality and isolation have been customarily assessed assuming static habitats. We present the first empirical evaluation on the effects of stochastic fluctuations in primary productivity--a major outcome of ecosystem functions--on the metapopulation dynamics of a primary consumer. A unique 13-year dataset from an herbivore rodent was used to test the hypothesis that inter-annual variations in primary productivity determine spatiotemporal habitat occupancy patterns and colonization and extinction processes. Inter-annual variability in productivity and in the growing season phenology significantly influenced habitat colonization patterns and occupancy dynamics. These effects lead to changes in connectivity to other potentially occupied habitat patches, which then feed back into occupancy dynamics. According to the results, the dynamics of primary productivity accounted for more than 50% of the variation in occupancy probability, depending on patch size and landscape configuration. Evidence connecting primary productivity dynamics and spatiotemporal population processes has broad implications for metapopulation persistence in fluctuating and changing environments.

Revisiting food-based models of territoriality in solitary predators.

Food availability is considered a major factor determining spacing behaviour in territorial species, especially for females. Theoretically, spatial overlap (considered the opposite of territoriality) and food availability are related in a nonlinear manner (hypothesized inverted-U function), with high overlap levels at the extremes of a food availability gradient and low overlap at intermediate levels of this gradient. Similar patterns are expected for encounter frequencies owing to its expected correlation with spatial overlap. However, these predictions have rarely been tested in highly structured social systems on a broad gradient of food availability, which implicitly requires experimental manipulation. We test these predictions in a solitary, territorial and trophic specialist, the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus, taking advantage of a three-decade data set of spatial behaviour in different scenarios of food availability (i.e. rabbit density). In contrast with expectations, home range overlap among resident females was low (median overlap index = 0.08, range 0-0.57) and core area overlap was nearly nil (median overlap index = 0, range 0-0.22) throughout the entire gradient of prey availability. Furthermore, spatial associations between pairs of females were negligible regardless marked variation in prey availability. Therefore, we did not find support for a model of flexible lynx territoriality driven by food availability. Our results suggest that the exclusive use of space in the Iberian lynx was not related to food. Lack of influence of prey availability on lynx territoriality may be adaptive to cope with the consequences of frequent drought-induced periods of prey scarcity or other disturbance typically affecting wild rabbit populations in Mediterranean environments. Thus, lynx would adopt an obstinate strategy of territoriality that consists in defending exclusive areas across a broad range of resource availability ensuring an exclusive access to the minimum amount of prey necessary for survival and eventually reproduction even during periods of prey scarcity. However, we found signs that territoriality was influenced by lynx density in a nonlinear fashion. Our results suggest the occurrence of population regulation through territoriality in this species.

Thieves or mutualists? Pulp feeders enhance endozoochore local recruitment.

The persistence of mutualisms despite the strong incidence of exploiters could be explained if exploiters deny one or more services (i.e., cheat) while eventually supplying some subtler but critical services. Pulp feeders usually ingest fruit reward without dispersing seeds and thus are considered to be mainly cheaters or thieves of seed-disperser mutualisms. By consuming the fruit pulp, however, they could release seeds from pulp inhibitory effect, enhancing germination and, potentially, subsequent seedling emergence, growth, survival, and thus local recruitment. We evaluated such a largely neglected hypothesis by considering the interaction between Pyrus bourgaeana and its pulp feeders. We experimentally showed that pericarp removal had a consistent strong positive effect on seed performance (e.g., lower rotting and higher germination percentages) and seedling fate (greater emergence, growth, and survival to two years old). Interestingly, these relatively large positive effects of depulpation on plant fitness persisted for a surprisingly long time. Though seedlings experienced higher mortality under fruiting conspecifics, the benefits of depulpation were not overridden by high propagule mortality beneath fruiting trees or in adverse microhabitats after two years of monitoring. Specifically, the cumulative probability of establishment for depulped seeds was 4-25 times higher than for seeds in whole ripe fruits. Thus, under some circumstances, pulp feeders can provide essential services to endozoochorous plants. Our study contributes to clarifying the apparent paradox of plant-frugivore mutualisms that persist in the face of exploitation by pulp feeders. Because "thieves" and "mutualists" refer to the extremes of a complex continuum, and because organisms displaying concurrent cheating and honest behaviors during different host stages are likely prevalent, the persistent language of mutualists vs. thieves, cheaters, or exploiters might be misleading.

Possible extinction vortex for a population of Iberian lynx on the verge of extirpation.

Theory suggests that demographic and genetic traits deteriorate (i.e., fitness and genetic diversity decrease) when populations become small, and that such deterioration could precipitate positive feedback loops called extinction vortices. We examined whether demographic attributes and genetic traits have changed over time in one of the 2 remaining small populations of the highly endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in Doñana, Spain. From 1983 to 2008, we recorded nontraumatic mortality rates, litter size, offspring survival, age at territory acquisition, and sex ratio. We combined these demographic attributes with measures of inbreeding and genetic diversity at neutral loci (microsatellites) and genes subjected to selection (major histocompatibility complex). Data on demographic traits were obtained through capture and radio tracking, checking dens during breeding, track surveys, and camera trapping. For genetic analyses, we obtained blood or tissue samples from captured or necropsied individuals or from museum specimens. Over time a female-biased sex ratio developed, age of territory acquisition decreased, mean litter size decreased, and rates of nontraumatic mortality increased, but there were no significant changes in overall mortality rates, standardized individual heterozygosity declined steadily, and allelic diversity of exon 2 of class II major histocompatibility complex DRB genes remained constant (2 allelic variants present in all individuals analyzed). Changes in sex ratio and age of territory acquisition may have resulted from demographic stochasticity, whereas changes in litter size and nontraumatic mortality may be related to observed increases in inbreeding. Concomitant deterioration of both demographic attributes and genetic traits is consistent with an extinction vortex. The co-occurrence, with or without interaction, of demographic and genetic deterioration may explain the lack of success of conservation efforts with the Doñana population of Iberian lynx.

Microgeographical, inter-individual, and intra-individual variation in the flower characters of Iberian pear Pyrus bourgaeana (Rosaceae).

Flower characteristics have been traditionally considered relatively constant within species. However, there are an increasing number of examples of variation in flower characteristics. In this study, we examined the variation in attracting and rewarding flower characters at several ecological levels in a metapopulation of Pyrus bourgaeana in the Doñana area (SW Spain). We answered the following questions: what are the variances of morphological and nectar characters of flowers? How important are intra-individual and inter-individual variance in flower characters? Are there microgeographical differences in flower characters? And if so, are they consistent between years? In 2008 and 2009, we sampled flowers of 72 trees from five localities. For six flower morphological and two nectar characteristics, we calculated coefficients of variation (CV). The partitioning of total variation among-localities, among-individuals, and within-individuals was estimated. To analyze differences among localities and their consistency between years, we conducted generalized linear mixed models. The CVs of nectar characters were always higher than those of morphological characters. As expected, inter-individual variation was the main source of variation of flower morphology, but nectar characters had significant variation at both intra- and inter-individual levels. For most floral traits, there were no differences among localities. Our study documents that variation is a scale-dependent phenomenon and that it is essential to consider intra- and inter-individual variance when investigating the causes and consequences of variation. It also shows that single year studies of floral characters should be viewed with caution.

Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) as sentinel species for the long-term biomonitoring of the Guadiamar River after the Aznalcóllar mine spill.

Accidents at mines involving stored tailings have produced catastrophic environmental damage. In April 1998 the dam of the Aznalcóllar mine tailings pond in the surroundings of the Doñana National Park (southwestern Spain) broke, discharging into the Guadiamar River more than 6 million m3 of toxic mud and acidic water with high concentrations of heavy metals and arsenic. We used the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) as sentinel species to assess the potential impact of the toxic spill on the river ecosystems and their recovery with time by studying the spatial and temporal variation (1999-2003, 2006) of selected trace element (Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and As) concentrations in feces. Throughout the sampling period, the highest heavy metal and As levels were found in the most spill-affected reaches of the Guadiamar River (i.e., the Middle and, to a lesser extent, the Lower reaches), pointing out the mining accident as the main origin of the contamination. Overall, levels of trace elements decreased with the time elapsed since the toxic spill, except for Cd (F1,352 = 0.29, P = 0.59). However, rebounds for some elements (Pb, As, and Cu) were also observed, especially in the Middle and Lower reaches of the river, which might be attributed to the residual contamination in abiotic compartments and/or new inputs from industrial and agricultural activities in the nearby areas. Concentrations were relatively high when compared to those reported for both our reference area (Guadalete River) and other metal-polluted zones. We found that the estimated amounts of Pb and As ingested during the first years after the spill in the Guadiamar Middle reach would be high enough to cause reproductive issues. This could affect the local population recovery, although evidence on distribution range and numbers suggests otherwise, with thriving populations at regional scale. Our results support the role of otters as sentinel species for biomonitoring contaminants and thus to evaluate fluvial ecosystem health.

A 16th-century biodiversity and crop inventory.

Documenting and understanding long-term biodiversity change is limited by the availability of historical data, particularly from periods preceding major anthropogenic changes associated with the Industrial Revolution. We mined the information of a standardized historical survey developed in 628 localities across Spain between 1574 and 1582 (Relaciones Topográficas de Felipe II) with the goal of producing a general characterization of Spanish settlements, including, though not limited to, natural resources. From this survey, we were able to gather 7309 records for 75 wild plant taxa, 89 wild animal taxa, and 60 crop and domestic animal taxa. These data can be used to reconstruct historical land use and habitat cover, and model historical distributions of many species, including emblematic ones such as wolf and bear, which can establish reference distributions to assess range and niche expansion, contraction, and shifts. Data are provided under a Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC-BY-NC) 4.0 License. Please cite this data paper when the data are used in publications. The authors are open to collaborate in projects based on this dataset.

Dangerous liaisons disperse the Mediterranean dwarf palm: fleshy-pulp defensive role against seed predators.

We chose the interaction between the Mediterranean dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis) and its major seed disperser, the Eurasian badger (Meles meles), to evaluate the hypothesis that endozoochory is characterized by a mixture of conflicting and overlapping interests, with the capacity of being positive or negative for plant fitness. For instance, because of the potential protective role against invertebrate seed predators of C. humilis pulp, we expected that badger-ingested diaspores (i.e., seeds without pulp) would show lower survival than control seeds with the pulp attached. Conversely, due to the possible germination inhibitory function of C. humilis fruit pulp, it was also likely that badger-ingested seeds germinate in higher proportion than control seeds. We evaluated our predictions by carrying out a field sowing and monitoring it over two years. We estimated several stage-specific transition probabilities as well as the cumulative probability of seedling recruitment under different treatments. Our experimental results revealed the multifunctionality of C. humilis fruit pulp and that fruit ingestion by badgers had conflicting outcomes for the palm. As predicted, seed survival was much lower and seed predation by invertebrates much higher for badger-ingested than for control seeds, suggesting a defensive role of C. humilis ripe fruit pulp. All early-emerged seedlings came from badger-ingested seeds, suggesting an inhibitory function of fruit pulp. Though we did not find an effect of removal from the maternal environment on most components of fitness, seedling survival for badger-ingested seeds was higher away from than beneath conspecifics. Badgers imposed a sizeable short-term fitness cost to C. humilis and therefore could be categorized as a "dangerous liaison." Nonetheless, because of the high mobility of the badger, its dispersal service appears paramount given the severe fragmentation and isolation of most C. humilis populations across the highly humanized Mediterranean basin. Our study thus illustrates the necessity of assessing concurrently direct and indirect effects of plant-disperser interactions at different stages of the plant life cycle and recruitment process.

Predators or prey? Spatio-temporal discrimination of human-derived risk by brown bears.

Prey usually adjust anti-predator behavior to subtle variations in perceived risk. However, it is not clear whether adult large carnivores that are virtually free of natural predation adjust their behavior to subtle variations in human-derived risk, even when living in human-dominated landscapes. As a model, we studied resting-site selection by a large carnivore, the brown bear (Ursus arctos), under different spatial and temporal levels of human activity. We quantified horizontal and canopy cover at 440 bear beds and 439 random sites at different distances from human settlements, seasons, and times of the day. We hypothesized that beds would be more concealed than random sites and that beds would be more concealed in relation to human-derived risk. Although human densities in Scandinavia are the lowest within bear ranges in Western Europe, we found an effect of human activity; bears chose beds with higher horizontal and canopy cover during the day (0700-1900 hours), especially when resting closer to human settlements, than at night (2200-0600 hours). In summer/fall (the berry season), with more intensive and dispersed human activity, including hunting, bears rested further from human settlements during the day than in spring (pre-berry season). Additionally, day beds in the summer/fall were the most concealed. Large carnivores often avoid humans at a landscape scale, but total avoidance in human-dominated areas is not possible. Apparently, bears adjust their behavior to avoid human encounters, which resembles the way prey avoid their predators. Bears responded to fine-scale variations in human-derived risk, both on a seasonal and a daily basis.

Use of descriptors of ecosystem functioning for monitoring a national park network: a remote sensing approach.

Baseline assessments and monitoring of protected areas are essential for making management decisions, evaluating the effectiveness of management practices, and tracking the effects of global changes. For these purposes, the analysis of functional attributes of ecosystems (i.e., different aspects of the exchange of matter and energy) has advantages over the traditional use of structural attributes, like a quicker response to disturbances and the fact that they are easily monitored through remote sensing. In this study, we described the spatiotemporal patterns of different aspects of the ecosystem functioning of the Spanish national parks and their response to environmental changes between 1982 and 2006. To do so, we used the NOAA/AVHRR-GIMMS dataset of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), a linear estimator of the fraction of photosynthetic active radiation intercepted by vegetation, which is the main control of carbon gains. Nearly all parks have significantly changed during the last 25 years: The radiation interception has increased, the contrast between the growing and nongrowing seasons has diminished, and the dates of maximum and minimum interception have advanced. Some parks concentrated more changes than others and the degree of change varied depending on their different environmental conditions, management, and conservation histories. Our approach identified reference conditions and temporal changes for different aspects of ecosystem functioning, which can be used for management purposes of protected areas in response to global changes.

Key role of European rabbits in the conservation of the Western Mediterranean basin hotspot.

The Mediterranean Basin is a global hotspot of biodiversity. Hotspots are said to be experiencing a major loss of habitat, but an added risk could be the decline of some species having a special role in ecological relationships of the system. We reviewed the role of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as a keystone species in the Iberian Peninsula portion of the Mediterranean hotspot. Rabbits conspicuously alter plant species composition and vegetation structure through grazing and seed dispersal, which creates open areas and preserves plant species diversity. Moreover, rabbit latrines have a demonstrable effect on soil fertility and plant growth and provide new feeding resources for many invertebrate species. Rabbit burrows provide nest sites and shelter for vertebrates and invertebrates. In addition, rabbits serve as prey for a number of predators, including the critically endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). Thus, the Mediterranean ecosystem of the Iberian Peninsula should be termed "the rabbit's ecosystem." To our knowledge, this is the first empirical support for existence of a multifunctional keystone species in a global hotspot of biodiversity. Rabbit populations have declined drastically on the Iberian Peninsula, with potential cascading effects and serious ecological and economic consequences. From this perspective, rabbit recovery is one of the biggest challenges for conservation of the Mediterranean Basin hotspot.

Exposure to disease agents in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus).

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is the most endangered felid species in the world. Lynx populations have decreased dramatically in size and distribution in the last four decades, thus becoming increasingly vulnerable to catastrophic events such as epizooties. From 1989 to 2000, serum samples were obtained from 48 free-ranging lynx captured in the Doñana National Park (DNP, n = 31) and mountains of Sierra Morena (SM, n = 17) in southern Spain. Samples were tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii, feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), feline/canine parvovirus (FPV/CPV), feline coronavirus, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline leukaemia virus and canine distemper virus (CDV) and for FeLV p27 antigen, to document baseline exposure levels. Antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 44% of lynx, with a significantly greater prevalence in DNP (61%) than in SM (12%). In DNP, prevalence was significantly higher in adult (81%) than in juvenile and sub-adult (41%) lynx, but no such difference was observed in SM. Low prevalences (≤11%) of minimally positive titres were found for FHV-1, FCV and FPV/CPV. This, combined with the lack of evidence for exposure to CDV, FIV and FeLV, suggests that these lynx populations are naïve and might be vulnerable to a disease outbreak in the future. Because of the reduced size of lynx populations, the documented low level of genetic variation (particularly in the DNP population) coupled with the recently documented state of immune depletion in a majority of necropsied lynx, it is important to better understand the threat and potential impact that disease agents might pose for the conservation of this endangered species. Future surveillance programs must include possible disease reservoir hosts such as domestic cats and dogs and other wild carnivores.

Patterns of brown bear damages on apiaries and management recommendations in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain.

Large carnivores are often persecuted due to conflict with human activities, making their conservation in human-modified landscapes very challenging. Conflict-related scenarios are increasing worldwide, due to the expansion of human activities or to the recovery of carnivore populations. In general, brown bears Ursus arctos avoid humans and their settlements, but they may use some areas close to people or human infrastructures. Bear damages in human-modified landscapes may be related to the availability of food resources of human origin, such as beehives. However, the association of damage events with factors that may predispose bears to cause damages has rarely been investigated. We investigated bear damages to apiaries in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), an area with relatively high density of bears. We included spatial, temporal and environmental factors and damage prevention measures in our analyses, as factors that may influence the occurrence and intensity of damages. In 2006-2008, we located 61 apiaries, which included 435 beehives damaged in the study area (346 km2). The probability of an apiary being attacked was positively related to both the intensity of the damage suffered the year before and the distance to the nearest damaged apiary, and negatively related to the number of prevention measures employed as well as the intensity of the damage suffered by the nearest damage apiary. The intensity of damage to apiaries was positively related to the size of the apiary and to vegetation cover in the surroundings, and negatively related to the number of human settlements. Minimizing the occurrence of bear damages to apiaries seems feasible by applying and maintaining proper prevention measures, especially before an attack occurs and selecting appropriate locations for beehives (e.g. away from forest areas). This applies to areas currently occupied by bears, and to neighbouring areas where dispersing individuals may expand their range.

Landscape evaluation in conservation: molecular sampling and habitat modeling for the Iberian lynx.

Conservation of endangered species requires comprehensive understanding of their distribution and habitat requirements, in order to implement better management strategies. Unfortunately, this understanding is often difficult to gather at the short term required by rapidly declining populations of many rare vertebrates. We present a spatial habitat modeling approach that integrates a molecular technique for species detection with landscape information to assess habitat requirements of a critically endangered mammalian carnivore, the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), in a poorly known population in Spain. We formulated a set of model hypotheses for habitat selection at the spatial scale of home ranges, based on previous information on lynx requirements of space, vegetation, and prey. To obtain the required data for model selection, we designed a sampling protocol based on surveys of feces and their molecular analysis for species identification. After comparing candidate models, we selected a parsimonious one that allowed (1) reliable assessment of lynx habitat requirements at the scale of home ranges, (2) prediction of lynx distribution and potential population size, and (3) identification of landscape management priorities for habitat conservation. This model predicted that the species was more likely to occur in landscapes with a higher percentage of rocky areas and higher cover of bushes typical of mature mediterranean shrubland mosaics. Its accuracy for discriminating lynx presence was approximately 85%, indicating high predictive performance. Mapping model predictions showed that only 16% of the studied areas constitute potential habitat for lynx, even though the region is dominated by large extents of well-preserved native vegetation with low human interference. Habitat was mostly clumped in two nearby patches connected by vegetation adequate for lynx dispersal and had a capacity for 28-62 potential breeding territories. The lynx population in Sierra Morena is probably the largest persisting today, but it is still critically small for optimism about its long-term persistence. Model results suggest habitat conservation and restoration actions needed for preserving the species, including reconciliation of hunting management with preservation of mature shrubland over large areas (particularly in rocky landscapes). The approach presented here can be applied to many other species for which the ecological information needed to develop sound habitat conservation strategies is lacking.