Physiological roles of mammalian transmembrane adenylyl cyclase isoforms.

Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) catalyze the conversion of ATP to the ubiquitous second messenger cAMP. Mammals possess nine isoforms of transmembrane ACs, dubbed AC1-9, that serve as major effector enzymes of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The transmembrane ACs display varying expression patterns across tissues, giving the potential for them to have a wide array of physiological roles. Cells express multiple AC isoforms, implying that ACs have redundant functions. Furthermore, all transmembrane ACs are activated by Gαs, so it was long assumed that all ACs are activated by Gαs-coupled GPCRs. AC isoforms partition to different microdomains of the plasma membrane and form prearranged signaling complexes with specific GPCRs that contribute to cAMP signaling compartments. This compartmentation allows for a diversity of cellular and physiological responses by enabling unique signaling events to be triggered by different pools of cAMP. Isoform-specific pharmacological activators or inhibitors are lacking for most ACs, making knockdown and overexpression the primary tools for examining the physiological roles of a given isoform. Much progress has been made in understanding the physiological effects mediated through individual transmembrane ACs. GPCR-AC-cAMP signaling pathways play significant roles in regulating functions of every cell and tissue, so understanding each AC isoform's role holds potential for uncovering new approaches for treating a vast array of pathophysiological conditions.

Mechanism of gabapentinoid potentiation of opioid effects on cyclic AMP signaling in neuropathic pain.

Over half of spinal cord injury (SCI) patients develop opioid-resistant chronic neuropathic pain. Safer alternatives to opioids for treatment of neuropathic pain are gabapentinoids (e.g., pregabalin and gabapentin). Clinically, gabapentinoids appear to amplify opioid effects, increasing analgesia and overdose-related adverse outcomes, but in vitro proof of this amplification and its mechanism are lacking. We previously showed that after SCI, sensitivity to opioids is reduced by fourfold to sixfold in rat sensory neurons. Here, we demonstrate that after injury, gabapentinoids restore normal sensitivity of opioid inhibition of cyclic AMP (cAMP) generation, while reducing nociceptor hyperexcitability by inhibiting voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs). Increasing intracellular Ca2+ or activation of L-type VGCCs (L-VGCCs) suffices to mimic SCI effects on opioid sensitivity, in a manner dependent on the activity of the Raf1 proto-oncogene, serine/threonine-protein kinase C-Raf, but independent of neuronal depolarization. Together, our results provide a mechanism for potentiation of opioid effects by gabapentinoids after injury, via reduction of calcium influx through L-VGCCs, and suggest that other inhibitors targeting these channels may similarly enhance opioid treatment of neuropathic pain.

Stabilization of interdomain interactions in G protein α subunits as a determinant of Gαi subtype signaling specificity.

Highly homologous members of the Gαi family, Gαi1-3, have distinct tissue distributions and physiological functions, yet their biochemical and functional properties are very similar. We recently identified PDZ-RhoGEF (PRG) as a novel Gαi1 effector that is poorly activated by Gαi2. In a proteomic proximity labeling screen we observed a strong preference for Gαi1 relative to Gαi2 with respect to engagement of a broad range of potential targets. We investigated the mechanistic basis for this selectivity using PRG as a representative target. Substitution of either the helical domain (HD) from Gαi1 into Gαi2 or substitution of a single amino acid, A230 in Gαi2 with the corresponding D in Gαi1, largely rescues PRG activation and interactions with other potential Gαi targets. Molecular dynamics simulations combined with Bayesian network models revealed that in the GTP bound state, separation at the HD-Ras-like domain (RLD) interface is more pronounced in Gαi2 than Gαi1. Mutation of A230 to D in Gαi2 stabilizes HD-RLD interactions via ionic interactions with R145 in the HD which in turn modify the conformation of Switch III. These data support a model where D229 in Gαi1 interacts with R144 and stabilizes a network of interactions between HD and RLD to promote protein target recognition. The corresponding A230 in Gαi2 is unable to stabilize this network leading to an overall lower efficacy with respect to target interactions. This study reveals distinct mechanistic properties that could underly differential biological and physiological consequences of activation of Gαi1 or Gαi2 by G protein-coupled receptors.

POPDC1 scaffolds a complex of adenylyl cyclase 9 and the potassium channel TREK-1 in heart.

The establishment of macromolecular complexes by scaffolding proteins is key to the local production of cAMP by anchored adenylyl cyclase (AC) and the subsequent cAMP signaling necessary for cardiac functions. We identify a novel AC scaffold, the Popeye domain-containing (POPDC) protein. The POPDC family of proteins is important for cardiac pacemaking and conduction, due in part to their cAMP-dependent binding and regulation of TREK-1 potassium channels. We show that TREK-1 binds the AC9:POPDC1 complex and copurifies in a POPDC1-dependent manner with AC9 activity in heart. Although the AC9:POPDC1 interaction is cAMP-independent, TREK-1 association with AC9 and POPDC1 is reduced upon stimulation of the ß-adrenergic receptor (ßAR). AC9 activity is required for ßAR reduction of TREK-1 complex formation with AC9:POPDC1 and in reversing POPDC1 enhancement of TREK-1 currents. Finally, deletion of the gene-encoding AC9 (Adcy9) gives rise to bradycardia at rest and stress-induced heart rate variability, a milder phenotype than the loss of Popdc1 but similar to the loss of Kcnk2 (TREK-1). Thus, POPDC1 represents a novel adaptor for AC9 interactions with TREK-1 to regulate heart rate control.

Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF) Makes Complex Contributions to Pain-Related Hyperactivity of Nociceptors after Spinal Cord Injury.

Neuropathic pain is a major, inadequately treated challenge for people with spinal cord injury (SCI). While SCI pain mechanisms are often assumed to be in the central nervous system, rodent studies have revealed mechanistic contributions from primary nociceptors. These neurons become chronically hyperexcitable after SCI, generating ongoing electrical activity (OA) that promotes ongoing pain. A major question is whether extrinsic chemical signals help to drive OA after SCI. People living with SCI exhibit acute and chronic elevation of circulating levels of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), a cytokine implicated in preclinical pain models. Probable nociceptors isolated from male rats and exposed to a MIF concentration reported in human plasma (1 ng/ml) showed hyperactivity similar to that induced by SCI, although, surprisingly, a ten-fold higher concentration failed to increase excitability. Conditioned behavioral aversion to a chamber associated with peripheral MIF injection suggested that MIF stimulates affective pain. A MIF inhibitor, Iso-1, reversed SCI-induced hyperexcitability. Unlike after SCI, acute MIF-induced hyperexcitability was only partially abrogated by inhibiting ERK signaling. Unexpectedly, MIF concentrations that induced hyperactivity in nociceptors from Naïve animals, after SCI induced a long-lasting conversion from a highly excitable nonaccommodating type to a rapidly accommodating, hypoexcitable type, possibly as a homeostatic response to prolonged depolarization. Treatment with conditioned medium from cultures of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells obtained after SCI was sufficient to induce MIF-dependent hyperactivity in neurons from Naïve rats. Thus, changes in systemic and DRG levels of MIF may help to maintain SCI-induced nociceptor hyperactivity that persistently promotes pain.Significance Statement:Chronic neuropathic pain is a major challenge for people with spinal cord injury (SCI). Pain can drastically impair quality of life, and produces substantial economic and social burdens. Available treatments, including opioids, remain inadequate. This study shows that the cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) can induce pain-like behavior and plays an important role in driving persistent ongoing electrical activity in injury-detecting sensory neurons (nociceptors) in a rat SCI model. The results indicate that SCI produces an increase in MIF release within sensory ganglia. Low MIF levels potently excite nociceptors, but higher levels trigger a long-lasting hypoexcitable state. These findings suggest that therapeutic targeting of MIF in neuropathic pain states may reduce pain and sensory dysfunction by curbing nociceptor hyperactivity.

Depolarization-Dependent C-Raf Signaling Promotes Hyperexcitability and Reduces Opioid Sensitivity of Isolated Nociceptors after Spinal Cord Injury.

Chronic pain caused by spinal cord injury (SCI) is notoriously resistant to treatment, particularly by opioids. After SCI, DRG neurons show hyperactivity and chronic depolarization of resting membrane potential (RMP) that is maintained by cAMP signaling through PKA and EPAC. Importantly, SCI also reduces the negative regulation by Gαi of adenylyl cyclase and its production of cAMP, independent of alterations in G protein-coupled receptors and/or G proteins. Opioid reduction of pain depends on coupling of opioid receptors to Gαi/o family members. Combining high-content imaging and cluster analysis, we show that in male rats SCI decreases opioid responsiveness in vitro within a specific subset of small-diameter nociceptors that bind isolectin B4. This SCI effect is mimicked in nociceptors from naive animals by a modest 5 min depolarization of RMP (15 mm K+; -45 mV), reducing inhibition of cAMP signaling by µ-opioid receptor agonists DAMGO and morphine. Disinhibition and activation of C-Raf by depolarization-dependent phosphorylation are central to these effects. Expression of an activated C-Raf reduces sensitivity of adenylyl cyclase to opioids in nonexcitable HEK293 cells, whereas inhibition of C-Raf or treatment with the hyperpolarizing drug retigabine restores opioid responsiveness and blocks spontaneous activity of nociceptors after SCI. Inhibition of ERK downstream of C-Raf also blocks SCI-induced hyperexcitability and depolarization, without direct effects on opioid responsiveness. Thus, depolarization-dependent C-Raf and downstream ERK activity maintain a depolarized RMP and nociceptor hyperactivity after SCI, providing a self-reinforcing mechanism to persistently promote nociceptor hyperexcitability and limit the therapeutic effectiveness of opioids.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Chronic pain induced by spinal cord injury (SCI) is often permanent and debilitating, and usually refractory to treatment with analgesics, including opioids. SCI-induced pain in a rat model has been shown to depend on persistent hyperactivity in primary nociceptors (injury-detecting sensory neurons), associated with a decrease in the sensitivity of adenylyl cyclase production of cAMP to inhibitory Gαi proteins in DRGs. This study shows that SCI and one consequence of SCI (chronic depolarization of resting membrane potential) decrease sensitivity to opioid-mediated inhibition of cAMP and promote hyperactivity of nociceptors by enhancing C-Raf activity. ERK activation downstream of C-Raf is necessary for maintaining ongoing depolarization and hyperactivity, demonstrating an unexpected positive feedback loop to persistently promote pain.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CI. Structures and Small Molecule Modulators of Mammalian Adenylyl Cyclases.

Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) generate the second messenger cAMP from ATP. Mammalian cells express nine transmembrane AC (mAC) isoforms (AC1-9) and a soluble AC (sAC, also referred to as AC10). This review will largely focus on mACs. mACs are activated by the G-protein Gαs and regulated by multiple mechanisms. mACs are differentially expressed in tissues and regulate numerous and diverse cell functions. mACs localize in distinct membrane compartments and form signaling complexes. sAC is activated by bicarbonate with physiologic roles first described in testis. Crystal structures of the catalytic core of a hybrid mAC and sAC are available. These structures provide detailed insights into the catalytic mechanism and constitute the basis for the development of isoform-selective activators and inhibitors. Although potent competitive and noncompetitive mAC inhibitors are available, it is challenging to obtain compounds with high isoform selectivity due to the conservation of the catalytic core. Accordingly, caution must be exerted with the interpretation of intact-cell studies. The development of isoform-selective activators, the plant diterpene forskolin being the starting compound, has been equally challenging. There is no known endogenous ligand for the forskolin binding site. Recently, development of selective sAC inhibitors was reported. An emerging field is the association of AC gene polymorphisms with human diseases. For example, mutations in the AC5 gene (ADCY5) cause hyperkinetic extrapyramidal motor disorders. Overall, in contrast to the guanylyl cyclase field, our understanding of the (patho)physiology of AC isoforms and the development of clinically useful drugs targeting ACs is still in its infancy.

Zinc Inhibits TRPV1 to Alleviate Chemotherapy-Induced Neuropathic Pain.

Zinc is a transition metal that has a long history of use as an anti-inflammatory agent. It also soothes pain sensations in a number of animal models. However, the effects and mechanisms of zinc on chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy remain unknown. Here we show that locally injected zinc markedly reduces neuropathic pain in male and female mice induced by paclitaxel, a chemotherapy drug, in a TRPV1-dependent manner. Extracellularly applied zinc also inhibits the function of TRPV1 expressed in HEK293 cells and mouse DRG neurons, which requires the presence of zinc-permeable TRPA1 to mediate entry of zinc into the cytoplasm. Moreover, TRPA1 is required for zinc-induced inhibition of TRPV1-mediated acute nociception. Unexpectedly, zinc transporters, but not TRPA1, are required for zinc-induced inhibition of TRPV1-dependent chronic neuropathic pain produced by paclitaxel. Together, our study demonstrates a novel mechanism underlying the analgesic effect of zinc on paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain that relies on the function of TRPV1.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy is a major limiting factor affecting the chemotherapy patients. There is no effective treatment available currently. We demonstrate that zinc prevents paclitaxel-induced mechanical hypersensitivity via inhibiting the TRPV1 channel, which is involved in the sensitization of peripheral nociceptors in chemotherapy. Zinc transporters in DRG neurons are required for the entry of zinc into the intracellular side, where it inhibits TRPV1. Our study provides insight into the mechanism underlying the pain-soothing effect of zinc and suggests that zinc could be developed to therapeutics for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy.

Insights into the Regulatory Properties of Human Adenylyl Cyclase Type 9.

Membrane-bound adenylyl cyclase (AC) isoforms have distinct regulatory mechanisms that contribute to their signaling specificity and physiologic roles. Although insight into the physiologic relevance of AC9 has progressed, the understanding of AC9 regulation is muddled with conflicting studies. Currently, modes of AC9 regulation include stimulation by Gαs, protein kinase C (PKC) ßII, or calcium-calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII) and inhibition by Gαi/o, novel PKC isoforms, or calcium-calcineurin. Conversely, the original cloning of human AC9 reported that AC9 is insensitive to Gαi inhibition. The purpose of our study was to clarify which proposed regulators of AC9 act directly or indirectly, particularly with respect to Gαi/o. The proposed regulators, including G proteins (Gαs, Gαi, Gαo, Gßγ), protein kinases (PKCßII, CaMKII), and forskolin, were systematically evaluated using classic in vitro AC assays and cell-based cAMP accumulation assays in COS-7 cells. Our studies show that AC9 is directly regulated by Gαs with weak conditional activation by forskolin; other modes of proposed regulation either occur indirectly or possibly require additional scaffolding proteins to facilitate regulation. We also show that AC9 contributes to basal cAMP production; knockdown or knockout of endogenous AC9 reduces basal AC activity in COS-7 cells and splenocytes. Importantly, although AC9 is not directly inhibited by Gαi/o, it can heterodimerize with Gαi/o-regulated isoforms, AC5 and AC6.

Nanometric targeting of type 9 adenylyl cyclase in heart.

Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) convert ATP into the classical second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Cardiac ACs, specifically AC5, AC6, and AC9, regulate cAMP signaling controlling functional outcomes such as heart rate, contractility and relaxation, gene regulation, stress responses, and glucose and lipid metabolism. With so many distinct functional outcomes for a single second messenger, the cell creates local domains of cAMP signaling to correctly relay signals. Targeting of ACs to A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) not only localizes ACs, but also places them within signaling nanodomains, where cAMP levels and effects can be highly regulated. Here we will discuss the recent work on the structure, regulation and physiological functions of AC9 in the heart, where it accounts for <3% of total AC activity. Despite the small contribution of AC9 to total cardiac cAMP production, AC9 binds and regulates local PKA phosphorylation of Yotiao-IKs and Hsp20, demonstrating a role for nanometric targeting of AC9.

Shining a light on GPCR complexes.

The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathways mediating information exchange across the cell membrane are central to a variety of biological processes and therapeutic strategies, but visualizing the molecular-level details of this exchange has been difficult for all but a few GPCR-G protein complexes. A study by Gao et al. now reports new strategies and tools to obtain receptor complexes in a near-native state, revealing insights into the gross conformational features of rhodopsin-transducin interactions and setting the stage for future studies.

Persistent Electrical Activity in Primary Nociceptors after Spinal Cord Injury Is Maintained by Scaffolded Adenylyl Cyclase and Protein Kinase A and Is Associated with Altered Adenylyl Cyclase Regulation.

Little is known about intracellular signaling mechanisms that persistently excite neurons in pain pathways. Persistent spontaneous activity (SA) generated in the cell bodies of primary nociceptors within dorsal root ganglia (DRG) has been found to make major contributions to chronic pain in a rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI) (Bedi et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2014). The occurrence of SCI-induced SA in a large fraction of DRG neurons and the persistence of this SA long after dissociation of the neurons provide an opportunity to define intrinsic cell signaling mechanisms that chronically drive SA in pain pathways. The present study demonstrates that SCI-induced SA requires continuing activity of adenylyl cyclase (AC) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), as well as a scaffolded complex containing AC5/6, A-kinase anchoring protein 150 (AKAP150), and PKA. SCI caused a small but significant increase in the expression of AKAP150 but not other AKAPs. DRG membranes isolated from SCI animals revealed a novel alteration in the regulation of AC. AC activity stimulated by Ca(2+)-calmodulin increased, while the inhibition of AC activity by Gαi showed an unexpected and dramatic decrease after SCI. Localized enhancement of the activity of AC within scaffolded complexes containing PKA is likely to contribute to chronic pathophysiological consequences of SCI, including pain, that are promoted by persistent hyperactivity in DRG neurons. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Chronic neuropathic pain is a major clinical problem with poorly understood mechanisms and inadequate treatments. Recent findings indicate that chronic pain in a rat SCI model depends upon hyperactivity in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons. Although cAMP signaling is involved in many forms of neural plasticity, including hypersensitivity of nociceptors in the presence of inflammatory mediators, our finding that continuing cAMP-PKA signaling is required for persistent SA months after SCI and long after isolation of nociceptors is surprising. The dependence of ongoing SA upon AKAP150 and AC5/6 was unknown. The discovery of a dramatic decrease in Gαi inhibition of AC activity after SCI is novel for any physiological system and potentially has broad implications for understanding chronic pain mechanisms.

Dual regulation of G proteins and the G-protein-activated K+ channels by lithium.

Lithium (Li(+)) is widely used to treat bipolar disorder (BPD). Cellular targets of Li(+), such as glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß) and G proteins, have long been implicated in BPD etiology; however, recent genetic studies link BPD to other proteins, particularly ion channels. Li(+) affects neuronal excitability, but the underlying mechanisms and the relevance to putative BPD targets are unknown. We discovered a dual regulation of G protein-gated K(+) (GIRK) channels by Li(+), and identified the underlying molecular mechanisms. In hippocampal neurons, therapeutic doses of Li(+) (1-2 mM) increased GIRK basal current (Ibasal) but attenuated neurotransmitter-evoked GIRK currents (Ievoked) mediated by Gi/o-coupled G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Molecular mechanisms of these regulations were studied with heterologously expressed GIRK1/2. In excised membrane patches, Li(+) increased Ibasal but reduced GPCR-induced GIRK currents. Both regulations were membrane-delimited and G protein-dependent, requiring both Gα and Gßγ subunits. Li(+) did not impair direct activation of GIRK channels by Gßγ, suggesting that inhibition of Ievoked results from an action of Li(+) on Gα, probably through inhibition of GTP-GDP exchange. In direct binding studies, Li(+) promoted GPCR-independent dissociation of Gαi(GDP) from Gßγ by a Mg(2+)-independent mechanism. This previously unknown Li(+) action on G proteins explains the second effect of Li(+), the enhancement of GIRK's Ibasal. The dual effect of Li(+) on GIRK may profoundly regulate the inhibitory effects of neurotransmitters acting via GIRK channels. Our findings link between Li(+), neuronal excitability, and both cellular and genetic targets of BPD: GPCRs, G proteins, and ion channels.

Creating order from chaos: cellular regulation by kinase anchoring.

Second messenger responses rely on where and when the enzymes that propagate these signals become active. Spatial and temporal organization of certain signaling enzymes is controlled in part by A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). This family of regulatory proteins was originally classified on the basis of their ability to compartmentalize the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase (also known as protein kinase A, or PKA). However, it is now recognized that AKAPs position G protein-coupled receptors, adenylyl cyclases, G proteins, and their effector proteins in relation to protein kinases and signal termination enzymes such as phosphodiesterases and protein phosphatases. This arrangement offers a simple and efficient means to limit the scope, duration, and directional flow of information to sites deep within the cell. This review focuses on the pros and cons of reagents that define the biological role of kinase anchoring inside cells and discusses recent advances in our understanding of anchored second messenger signaling in the cardiovascular and immune systems.

A Quantitative Model of the GIRK1/2 Channel Reveals That Its Basal and Evoked Activities Are Controlled by Unequal Stoichiometry of Gα and Gßγ.

G protein-gated K+ channels (GIRK; Kir3), activated by Gßγ subunits derived from Gi/o proteins, regulate heartbeat and neuronal excitability and plasticity. Both neurotransmitter-evoked (Ievoked) and neurotransmitter-independent basal (Ibasal) GIRK activities are physiologically important, but mechanisms of Ibasal and its relation to Ievoked are unclear. We have previously shown for heterologously expressed neuronal GIRK1/2, and now show for native GIRK in hippocampal neurons, that Ibasal and Ievoked are interrelated: the extent of activation by neurotransmitter (activation index, Ra) is inversely related to Ibasal. To unveil the underlying mechanisms, we have developed a quantitative model of GIRK1/2 function. We characterized single-channel and macroscopic GIRK1/2 currents, and surface densities of GIRK1/2 and Gßγ expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Based on experimental results, we constructed a mathematical model of GIRK1/2 activity under steady-state conditions before and after activation by neurotransmitter. Our model accurately recapitulates Ibasal and Ievoked in Xenopus oocytes, HEK293 cells and hippocampal neurons; correctly predicts the dose-dependent activation of GIRK1/2 by coexpressed Gßγ and fully accounts for the inverse Ibasal-Ra correlation. Modeling indicates that, under all conditions and at different channel expression levels, between 3 and 4 Gßγ dimers are available for each GIRK1/2 channel. In contrast, available Gαi/o decreases from ~2 to less than one Gα per channel as GIRK1/2's density increases. The persistent Gßγ/channel (but not Gα/channel) ratio support a strong association of GIRK1/2 with Gßγ, consistent with recruitment to the cell surface of Gßγ, but not Gα, by GIRK1/2. Our analysis suggests a maximal stoichiometry of 4 Gßγ but only 2 Gαi/o per one GIRK1/2 channel. The unique, unequal association of GIRK1/2 with G protein subunits, and the cooperative nature of GIRK gating by Gßγ, underlie the complex pattern of basal and agonist-evoked activities and allow GIRK1/2 to act as a sensitive bidirectional detector of both Gßγ and Gα.

Adenylyl Cyclase 5 Regulation by Gßγ Involves Isoform-Specific Use of Multiple Interaction Sites.

Adenylyl cyclase (AC) converts ATP into cyclic AMP (cAMP), an important second messenger in cell signaling. Heterotrimeric G proteins and other regulators are important for control of AC activity. Depending on the AC isoform, Gßγ subunits can either conditionally stimulate or inhibit cAMP synthesis. We previously showed that the Gαs-ßγ heterotrimer binds to the N terminus (NT) of type 5 AC (AC5). We now show that Gßγ binds to the NT of a wide variety of AC isoforms. We hypothesized that Gßγ/AC5 interactions involving inactive heterotrimer and Gßγ stimulation of AC5 were separable events. Mutations of the Gßγ "hotspot" show that this site is necessary for AC5 stimulation but not for interactions with the first 198 aa of AC5NT, which is a G protein scaffolding site. This contrasts with AC6, where the Gßγ hotspot is required for both interactions with AC6NT and for stimulation of AC6. Additionally, the SIGK hotspot peptide disrupts Gßγ regulation of AC isoforms 1, 2, and 6, but not AC5. Gßγ also binds the C1/C2 catalytic domains of AC5 and AC6. Finally, cellular interactions with full-length AC5 depend on multiple sites on Gßγ. This suggests an isoform-specific mechanism in which bound Gßγ at the AC5NT is ideally situated for spatiotemporal control of AC5. We propose Gßγ regulation of AC involves multiple binding events, and the role of the AC NT for mechanisms of regulation by heterotrimeric G protein subunits is isoform-specific.

Bacterial effector binds host cell adenylyl cyclase to potentiate Gαs-dependent cAMP production.

Subversion of host organism cAMP signaling is an efficient and widespread mechanism of microbial pathogenesis. Bartonella effector protein A (BepA) of vasculotumorigenic Bartonella henselae protects the infected human endothelial cells against apoptotic stimuli by elevation of cellular cAMP levels by an as yet unknown mechanism. Here, adenylyl cyclase (AC) and the α-subunit of the AC-stimulating G protein (Gαs) were identified as potential cellular target proteins for BepA by gel-free proteomics. Results of the proteomics screen were evaluated for physical and functional interaction by: (i) a heterologous in vivo coexpression system, where human AC activity was reconstituted under the regulation of Gαs and BepA in Escherichia coli; (ii) in vitro AC assays with membrane-anchored full-length human AC and recombinant BepA and Gαs; (iii) surface plasmon resonance experiments; and (iv) an in vivo fluorescence bimolecular complementation-analysis. The data demonstrate that BepA directly binds host cell AC to potentiate the Gαs-dependent cAMP production. As opposed to the known microbial mechanisms, such as ADP ribosylation of G protein α-subunits by cholera and pertussis toxins, the fundamentally different BepA-mediated elevation of host cell cAMP concentration appears subtle and is dependent on the stimulus of a G protein-coupled receptor-released Gαs. We propose that this mechanism contributes to the persistence of Bartonella henselae in the chronically infected vascular endothelium.

Recruitment of Gßγ controls the basal activity of G-protein coupled inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels: crucial role of distal C terminus of GIRK1.

The G-protein coupled inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK, or Kir3) channels are important mediators of inhibitory neurotransmission via activation of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). GIRK channels are tetramers comprising combinations of subunits (GIRK1-4), activated by direct binding of the Gßγ subunit of Gi/o proteins. Heterologously expressed GIRK1/2 exhibit high, Gßγ-dependent basal currents (Ibasal) and a modest activation by GPCR or coexpressed Gßγ. Inversely, the GIRK2 homotetramers exhibit low Ibasal and strong activation by Gßγ. The high Ibasal of GIRK1 seems to be associated with its unique distal C terminus (G1-dCT), which is not present in the other subunits. We investigated the role of G1-dCT using electrophysiological and fluorescence assays in Xenopus laevis oocytes and protein interaction assays. We show that expression of GIRK1/2 increases the plasma membrane level of coexpressed Gßγ (a phenomenon we term 'Gßγ recruitment') but not of coexpressed Gαi3. All GIRK1-containing channels, but not GIRK2 homomers, recruited Gßγ to the plasma membrane. In biochemical assays, truncation of G1-dCT reduces the binding between the cytosolic parts of GIRK1 and Gßγ, but not Gαi3. Nevertheless, the truncation of G1-dCT does not impair activation by Gßγ. In fluorescently labelled homotetrameric GIRK1 channels and in the heterotetrameric GIRK1/2 channel, the truncation of G1-dCT abolishes Gßγ recruitment and decreases Ibasal. Thus, we conclude that G1-dCT carries an essential role in Gßγ recruitment by GIRK1 and, consequently, in determining its high basal activity. Our results indicate that G1-dCT is a crucial part of a Gßγ anchoring site of GIRK1-containing channels, spatially and functionally distinct from the site of channel activation by Gßγ.

Scaffolding by A-kinase anchoring protein enhances functional coupling between adenylyl cyclase and TRPV1 channel.

Scaffolding proteins often bring kinases together with their substrates to facilitate cell signaling. This arrangement is critical for the phosphorylation and regulation of the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channel, a key target of inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins. The protein kinase A anchoring protein AKAP79/150 organizes a multiprotein complex to position protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) in the immediate proximity of TRPV1 channels to enhance phosphorylation efficiency. This arrangement suggests that regulators upstream of the kinases must also be present in the signalosome. Here, we show that AKAP79/150 facilitates a complex containing TPRV1 and adenylyl cyclase (AC). The anchoring of AC to this complex generates local pools of cAMP, shifting the concentration of forskolin required to attenuate capsaicin-dependent TRPV1 desensitization by ∼100-fold. Anchoring of AC to the complex also sensitizes the channel to activation by ß-adrenergic receptor agonists. Significant AC activity is found associated with TRPV1 in dorsal root ganglia. The dissociation of AC from an AKAP150-TRPV1 complex in dorsal root ganglia neurons abolishes sensitization of TRPV1 induced by forskolin and prostaglandin E(2). Thus, the direct anchoring of both PKA and AC to TRPV1 by AKAP79/150 facilitates the response to inflammatory mediators and may be critical in the pathogenesis of thermal hyperalgesia.

Spatial organization of adenylyl cyclase and its impact on dopamine signaling in neurons.

The cAMP cascade is increasingly recognized to transduce physiological effects locally through spatially limited cAMP gradients. However, little is known about how adenylyl cyclase enzymes that initiate cAMP gradients are localized. Here we address this question in physiologically relevant striatal neurons and investigate how AC localization impacts downstream signaling function. We show that the major striatal AC isoforms are differentially sorted between ciliary and extraciliary domains of the plasma membrane, and that one isoform, AC9, is uniquely concentrated in endosomes. We identify key sorting determinants in the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain responsible for isoform-specific localization. We further show that AC9-containing endosomes accumulate activated dopamine receptors and form an elaborately intertwined network with juxtanuclear PKA stores bound to Golgi membranes. Finally, we provide evidence that endosomal localization enables AC9 to selectively elevate PKA activity in the nucleus relative to the cytoplasm. Together, these results reveal a precise spatial landscape of the cAMP cascade in neurons and a key role of AC localization in directing downstream PKA signaling to the nucleus.