Antigen retrieval prior to on-tissue digestion of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumour tissue sections yields oxidation of proline residues.

MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) has been shown to allow the study of protein distribution and identification directly within formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue sections. However, direct protein identification from tissue sections remains challenging due to signal interferences and/or existing post-translational or other chemical modifications. The use of antigen retrieval (AR) has been demonstrated for unlocking proteins prior to in situ enzymatic digestion and MALDI-MSI analysis of FFPE tissue sections. In the work reported here, the identification of proline oxidation, which may occur when performing the AR protocol, is described. This facilitated and considerably increased the number of identified peptides when adding proline oxidation as a variable modification to the MASCOT search criteria. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MALDI Imaging, edited by Dr. Corinna Henkel and Prof. Peter Hoffmann.

Identification of hypoxia-regulated proteins using MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging combined with quantitative proteomics.

Hypoxia is present in most solid tumors and is clinically correlated with increased metastasis and poor patient survival. While studies have demonstrated the role of hypoxia and hypoxia-regulated proteins in cancer progression, no attempts have been made to identify hypoxia-regulated proteins using quantitative proteomics combined with MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI). Here we present a comprehensive hypoxic proteome study and are the first to investigate changes in situ using tumor samples. In vitro quantitative mass spectrometry analysis of the hypoxic proteome was performed on breast cancer cells using stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC). MS analyses were performed on laser-capture microdissected samples isolated from normoxic and hypoxic regions from tumors derived from the same cells used in vitro. MALDI-MSI was used in combination to investigate hypoxia-regulated protein localization within tumor sections. Here we identified more than 100 proteins, both novel and previously reported, that were associated with hypoxia. Several proteins were localized in hypoxic regions, as identified by MALDI-MSI. Visualization and data extrapolation methods for the in vitro SILAC data were also developed, and computational mapping of MALDI-MSI data to IHC results was applied for data validation. The results and limitations of the methodologies described are discussed.

Novel molecular tumour classification using MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging of tissue micro-array.

The development of tissue micro-array (TMA) technologies provides insights into high-throughput analysis of proteomics patterns from a large number of archived tumour samples. In the work reported here, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-ion mobility separation-mass spectrometry (MALDI-IMS-MS) profiling and imaging methodology has been used to visualise the distribution of several peptides and identify them directly from TMA sections after on-tissue tryptic digestion. A novel approach that combines MALDI-IMS-MSI and principal component analysis-discriminant analysis (PCA-DA) is described, which has the aim of generating tumour classification models based on protein profile patterns. The molecular classification models obtained by PCA-DA have been validated by applying the same statistical analysis to other tissue cores and patient samples. The ability to correlate proteomic information obtained from samples with known and/or unknown clinical outcome by statistical analysis is of great importance, since it may lead to a better understanding of tumour progression and aggressiveness and hence improve diagnosis, prognosis as well as therapeutic treatments. The selectivity, robustness and current limitations of the methodology are discussed.

Introduction of a 20 kHz Nd:YVO4 laser into a hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer for MALDI-MS imaging.

A commercial hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer has been modified for high-speed matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) imaging using a short-pulse optical technology Nd:YVO(4) laser. The laser operating in frequency-tripled mode (lambda = 355 nm) is capable of delivering 1.5-ns pulses of energy at up to 8 microJ at 5-10 kHz and 3 microJ at 20 kHz. Experiments to improve beam homogeneity and reduce laser speckle by mechanical vibration of the fibre-optic laser delivery system are reported along with data from trial and tissue imaging experiments using the modified instrument. The laser appeared to yield best results for MALDI-MS imaging experiments when operating at repetition rates 5-10 kHz. Combining this with raster imaging allowed images of rat brain sections to be recorded in 37 min. Similarly, images of the distribution of peptides in "on-tissue" digest experiments from tumour tissues were recorded in 1 h and 30 min rather than the 8-h acquisition time previously used. A brief investigation of targeted protein analysis/imaging by multiple reaction monitoring experiments "on-tissue" is reported. A total of 26 transitions were recorded over a 3-s cycle time and images of abundant proteins were successfully recorded.

Detergent addition to tryptic digests and ion mobility separation prior to MS/MS improves peptide yield and protein identification for in situ proteomic investigation of frozen and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded adenocarcinoma tissue sections.

The identification of proteins involved in tumour progression or which permit enhanced or novel therapeutic targeting is essential for cancer research. Direct MALDI analysis of tissue sections is rapidly demonstrating its potential for protein imaging and profiling in the investigation of a range of disease states including cancer. MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) has been used here for direct visualisation and in situ characterisation of proteins in breast tumour tissue section samples. Frozen MCF7 breast tumour xenograft and human formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded breast cancer tissue sections were used. An improved protocol for on-tissue trypsin digestion is described incorporating the use of a detergent, which increases the yield of tryptic peptides for both fresh frozen and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumour tissue sections. A novel approach combining MALDI-MSI and ion mobility separation MALDI-tandem mass spectrometry imaging for improving the detection of low-abundance proteins that are difficult to detect by direct MALDI-MSI analysis is described. In situ protein identification was carried out directly from the tissue section by MALDI-MSI. Numerous protein signals were detected and some proteins including histone H3, H4 and Grp75 that were abundant in the tumour region were identified.

MALDI-ion mobility separation-mass spectrometry imaging of glucose-regulated protein 78 kDa (Grp78) in human formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded pancreatic adenocarcinoma tissue sections.

MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) is a technique that allows proteomic information, that is, the spatial distribution and identification of proteins, to be obtained directly from tissue sections. The use of in situ enzymatic digestion as a sample pretreatment prior to MALDI-MSI analysis has been found to be useful for retrieving protein identification directly from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (ffpe) tissue sections. Here, an improved method for the study of the distribution and the identification of peptides obtained after in situ digestion of fppe pancreatic tumor tissue sections by using MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging coupled with ion mobility separation (IMS) is described. MALDI-IMS-MS images of peptide obtained from pancreatic tumor tissue sections allowed the localization of tumor regions within the tissue section, while minimizing the peak interferences which were observed with conventional MALDI-TOF MSI. The use of ion mobility separation coupled with MALDI-MSI improved the selectivity and specificity of the method and, hence, enabled both the localization and in situ identification of glucose regulated protein 78 kDa (Grp78), a tumor biomarker, within pancreatic tumor tissue sections. These findings were validated using immunohistochemical staining.

Aggregation of human recombinant monoclonal antibodies influences the capacity of dendritic cells to stimulate adaptive T-cell responses in vitro.

Subvisible proteinaceous particles which are present in all therapeutic protein formulations are in the focus of intense discussions between health authorities, academics and biopharmaceutical companies in the context of concerns that such particles could promote unwanted immunogenicity via anti-drug antibody formation. In order to provide further understanding of the subject, this study closely examines the specific biological effects proteinaceous particles may exert on dendritic cells (DCs) as the most efficient antigen-presenting cell population crucial for the initiation of the adaptive immune response. Two different model IgG antibodies were subjected to three different types of exaggerated physical stress to generate subvisible particles in far greater concentrations than the ones typical for the currently marketed biotherapeutical antibodies. The aggregated samples were used in in vitro biological assays in order to interrogate the early DC-driven events that initiate CD4 T-cell dependent humoral adaptive immune responses--peptide presentation capacity and co-stimulatory activity of DCs. Most importantly, antigen presentation was addressed with a unique approach called MHC-associated Peptide Proteomics (MAPPs), which allows for identifying the sequences of HLA-DR associated peptides directly from human dendritic cells. The experiments demonstrated that highly aggregated solutions of two model mAbs generated under controlled conditions can induce activation of human monocyte-derived DCs as indicated by upregulation of typical maturation markers including co-stimulatory molecules necessary for CD4 T-cell activation. Additional data suggest that highly aggregated proteins could induce in vitro T-cell responses. Intriguingly, strong aggregation-mediated changes in the pattern and quantity of antigen-derived HLA-DR associated peptides presented on DCs were observed, indicating a change in protein processing and presentation. Increasing the amounts of subvisible proteinaceous particles correlated very well with the pronounced increase in the peptide number and clusters presented in the context of class II HLA-DR molecules, suggesting a major involvement of a mass-action mechanism of altering the presentation.

Instrumentation and software for mass spectrometry imaging--making the most of what you've got.

Whilst it might be desirable to be able to purchase an up to date mass spectrometry platform and dedicate it to mass spectrometry imaging, this is not the situation initially for many laboratories. There are a variety of methods by which existing mass spectrometers can be upgraded/adapted to perform mass spectrometry imaging using MALDI, DESI or LAESI as the means of generating ions. The focus of this article is on relatively low cost adaptations of existing instrumentation with suggestions made for performance enhancements where appropriate. A brief description of attempts to perform SIMS imaging on quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometers is also given. The required software is described with particular emphasis on freeware packages which can be used to display/enhance data. Requirements for data pre-processing prior or statistical analysis are discussed along with the use of MATLAB® for the analysis itself.