Skeletal muscle transcriptomics dissects the pathogenesis of Friedreich's ataxia.

OBJECTIVE: In Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA), the most affected tissues are not accessible to sampling and available transcriptomic findings originate from blood-derived cells and animal models. Herein, we aimed at dissecting for the first time the pathophysiology of FRDA by means of RNA-sequencing in an affected tissue sampled in vivo. METHODS: Skeletal muscle biopsies were collected from seven FRDA patients before and after treatment with recombinant human Erythropoietin (rhuEPO) within a clinical trial. Total RNA extraction, 3'-mRNA library preparation and sequencing were performed according to standard procedures. We tested for differential gene expression with DESeq2 and performed gene set enrichment analysis with respect to control subjects. RESULTS: FRDA transcriptomes showed 1873 genes differentially expressed from controls. Two main signatures emerged: (1) a global downregulation of the mitochondrial transcriptome as well as of ribosome/translational machinery and (2) an upregulation of genes related to transcription and chromatin regulation, especially of repressor terms. Downregulation of the mitochondrial transcriptome was more profound than previously shown in other cellular systems. Furthermore, we observed in FRDA patients a marked upregulation of leptin, the master regulator of energy homeostasis. RhuEPO treatment further enhanced leptin expression. INTERPRETATION: Our findings reflect a double hit in the pathophysiology of FRDA: a transcriptional/translational issue and a profound mitochondrial failure downstream. Leptin upregulation in the skeletal muscle in FRDA may represent a compensatory mechanism of mitochondrial dysfunction, which is amenable to pharmacological boosting. Skeletal muscle transcriptomics is a valuable biomarker to monitor therapeutic interventions in FRDA.

Familial writer's cramp: a clinical clue for inherited coenzyme Q10 deficiency.

The spectrum of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) deficiency syndromes comprises a variety of disorders, including a form of autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxia (ARCA2) caused by mutations in the AarF domain-containing kinase 3 gene (ADCK3). Due to the potential response to CoQ10 supplementation, a timely diagnosis is crucial. Herein, we describe two siblings with a novel homozygous ADCK3 variant and an unusual presentation consisting of isolated writer's cramp with adult-onset. Cerebellar ataxia developed later in the disease course and remained stable during the follow-up. This report highlights that ARCA2 should be considered in the differential diagnosis of familial writer's cramp.

Ten years of follow-up in a large family with familial hemiplegic migraine type 1: Clinical course and implications for treatment.

Background Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) is a rare, genetic form of migraine with aura. The severity of the aura imposes an effective prophylaxis that is currently based on standard anti-migraine drugs. To this concern, only short-term reports are currently available. Methods Eight patients from a multigenerational FHM type 1 family harbouring a T666M mutation in the CACNA1A gene were referred to our ataxia outpatient clinic. Medical history, general and neurological examination as well as therapeutic approaches were recorded regularly on a routine basis for an average period of 13 years (range 9-15 years). Brain imaging studies and EEG data were also collected. Results Our long-term follow-up revealed that ictal manifestations, which usually improve after the adolescence, may reoccur later in the adulthood. Permanent neurological signs as assessed by means of clinical evaluation as well as follow-up MRIs, EEGs and neuropsychological testing remained stable. Interval therapy with non-selective calcium antagonists reduced the burden of migraine attacks and was well tolerated in the long term.

Friedreich ataxia: executive control is related to disease onset and GAA repeat length.

Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) is the most frequent inherited ataxia. Neuropsychological studies suggest that FRDA may be associated with specific cognitive impairment. Very little is known about the relation between cognitive performance, demographics and disease-related parameters, such as GAA repeat size, age of onset and disease duration. The present investigation aimed at assessing cognitive functions in a representative sample of FRDA patients and at identifying the most relevant disease-related parameters. Twenty-nine adult FRDA patients underwent neuropsychological tests assessing executive functions, attention, memory and visual perception. Performance was compared with 28 age- and education-matched controls as well as with standardized norms. The relation between neuropsychological outcome, demographical variables and disease-related parameters was assessed. Cognitive impairment affected only a subgroup of patients and mostly concerned attentional and executive functions. Good cognitive performance was associated with a later disease onset, shorter GAA repeat length and lower burden of disease. Age at disease onset has been found to be a good predictor when a cut-off of 14 years was chosen. No correlation was found between cognitive performance and education, age or disease duration. The present study extends earlier findings in FRDA showing that performance in attentional and executive function tasks is best predicted by the age at disease onset. Moreover, executive functions show a clear relationship to disease severity and repeat size of the shorter GAA allele. These findings therefore have important implications for patient counselling regarding education and career choices.

Low bone mineral density in Friedreich ataxia.

Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) is the most common inherited neurodegenerative ataxia. Apart from predominant neurological features an involvement of the skeletal system in terms of scoliosis and foot deformities is frequent. Disease-related falls, mobility restrictions, and wheelchair-dependency in later disease stages might additionally compromise bone structure in FRDA. The aim of this pilot study was to systematically evaluate the bone status in a representative FRDA cohort. Twenty-eight FRDA patients became enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Neurological assessment, a questionnaire comprising the history of fractures and osteoporosis as well as osteodensitometric measurements complemented with general and bone-specific laboratory parameters were performed. The WHO Fracture Risk Assessment tool (FRAX®) was applied, calculating the 10-year risk of suffering an osteoporotic fracture. Six patients (21.4 %) presented with a bone mineral density below the expected range for age in at least one of the examined sites (femoral neck, lumbar spine, and forearm) irrespective of their gender. Corresponding Z scores were significantly lower compared to normative values for the femoral neck and lumbar spine. Vitamin D status was insufficient in 11 and deficient in 8 FRDA patients. There was a strong negative correlation between ataxia severity, GAA repeat expansion and bone density in the femoral neck of FRDA patients. This is the first report of an increased rate of low bone mineral density in FRDA. Given the increased risk of falls, this data rectifies routine bone mineral density measurements in FRDA which may help to initiate therapeutic interventions to prevent this condition.

Toward the Definition of Patient-Reported Outcome Measurements in Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia.

Background and Objectives: Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are a heterogeneous group of rare neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by a progressive spastic paraparesis. Currently, there is a HSP-specific clinician-reported outcome measure (CROM) called Spastic Paraplegia Rating Scale (SPRS). There are, however, no specific patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) for HSP. In the present cohort study, we prospectively follow up a well-examined Austrian HSP cohort using validated rating scales and compared PROM with disease-specific and non-disease-specific CROM. Methods: Patients were recruited and followed up at the Center for Rare Movement Disorders, Innsbruck, Austria. CROM included the SPRS, Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA), Barthel Index (BI), and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). PROM included the EQ-5D questionnaire and the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9). Standardized response means (SRMs) were calculated for all scales at follow-up (FU) after 1 year. Results: A total of 55 patients (36 males) with HSP were included in the study. FU was performed for 30 patients (21 males). Apart from females reporting more problems in the EQ-5D domain of anxiety and depression (p = 0.008), other clinician-reported outcomes (CROs) or patient-reported outcomes (PROs) did not differ significantly across sex. SPRS showed significant correlations with SARA (p < 0.001), mainly driven by the gait item, as well as the BI. Although SPRS did not correlate with EQ-5D visual analogue scale and PHQ-9 scores, several EQ-5D domains correlated significantly with SPRS. At FU, SPRS showed the highest responsiveness (SRM 1.11), followed by SARA (SRM 0.47). Neither MMSE nor PRO significantly increased at FU. Discussion: In this study, we present an Austrian cohort of patients with HSP and a prospective study evaluating correlations of CRO and PRO as well as their progression. Demographics from our cohort are comparable with several other European cohort studies. Our data highlight the capabilities of the SPRS to show clinical progression and warrant consideration of ataxia rating scales such as SARA in HSP cohorts. We also show that the generic PROMs are not suitable to detect change in HSP, and thus, we propose to create a disease-specific PROM fully depicting the effect of HSP on the patients' lives.

Instrumented gait analysis defines the walking signature of CACNA1A disorders.

BACKGROUND: Gait disturbances are a frequent symptom in CACNA1A disorders. Even though, data about their severity and progression are lacking and no CACNA1A-specific scale or assessment for gait is available. METHODS: We applied a gait assessment protocol in 20 ambulatory patients with genetically confirmed CACNA1A disorders and 39 matched healthy controls. An instrumented gait analysis (IGA) was performed by means of wearable sensors in basal condition and after a treadmill/cycloergometer challenge in selected cases. RESULTS: CACNA1A patients displayed lower gait speed, shorter steps with increased step length variability, a reduced landing acceleration as well as a reduced range of ankle motion compared to controls. Furthermore, gait-width in patients with episodic CACNA1A disorders was narrower as compared to controls. In one patient experiencing mild episodic symptoms after the treadmill challenge, the IGA was able to detect a deterioration over all gait parameters. CONCLUSIONS: In CACNA1A patients, the IGA with wearable sensors unravels specific gait signatures which are not detectable at naked eye. These features (narrow-based gait, lower landing acceleration) distinguish these patients from other ataxic disorders and may be target of focused rehabilitative interventions. IGA can potentially be applied to monitor the neurological fluctuations associated with CACNA1A disorders.

Correlation of frataxin content in blood and skeletal muscle endorses frataxin as a biomarker in Friedreich ataxia.

BACKGROUND: Friedreich ataxia is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the frataxin gene, leading to reduced levels of the mitochondrial protein frataxin. Assays to quantitatively measure frataxin in peripheral blood have been established. To determine the validity of frataxin as a biomarker for clinical trials, we assessed frataxin in clinically affected tissue. METHODS: In 7 patients with Friedreich ataxia, frataxin content was measured in blood and skeletal muscle before and after treatment with recombinant human erythropoietin, applying the electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. RESULTS: We found frataxin content to be correlated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and skeletal muscle in drug-naive patients with Friedreich ataxia. The correlation of frataxin content in both compartments remained significant after 8 weeks of treatment. Skeletal-muscle frataxin values correlated with ataxia using the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia score. CONCLUSIONS: Our results endorse frataxin measurements in peripheral blood cells as a valid biomarker in Friedreich ataxia.

The rare and the common: An Austrian DRPLA family harboring the European haplotype.

Dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA) is a CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion disorder with an autosomal-dominant mode of inheritance and very low prevalence in Europe. We herein report the clinical characteristics of the first Austrian DRPLA family. Genetic analysis revealed the presence of a common European haplotype, suggesting a founder mutation in Europe.

Mast Syndrome Outside the Amish Community: SPG21 in Europe.

BACKGROUND: Mast syndrome is a rare disorder belonging to the group of hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs). It is caused by bi-allelic mutations in the ACP33 gene, and is originally described in Old Order Amish. Outside this population, only one Japanese and one Italian family have been reported. Herein, we describe five subjects from the first three SPG21 families of German and Austrian descent. METHODS: Five subjects with complicated HSP were referred to our centers. The workup consisted of neurological examination, neurophysiological and neuropsychological assessments, MRI, and genetic testing. RESULTS: Onset varied from child- to adulthood. All patients exhibited predominant spastic para- or tetraparesis with positive pyramidal signs, pronounced cognitive impairment, ataxia, and extrapyramidal signs. Neurophysiological workup showed abnormal motor and sensory evoked potentials in all the patients. Sensorimotor axonal neuropathy was present in one patient. Imaging exhibited thin corpus callosum and global brain atrophy. Genetic testing revealed one heterozygous compound and two homozygous mutations in the ACP33 gene. CONCLUSION: Herein, we report the first three Austrian and two German patients with SPG21, presenting a detailed description of their clinical phenotype and disease course. Our report adds to the knowledge of this extremely rare disorder, and highlights that SPG21 must also be considered in the differential diagnosis of complicated HSP outside the Amish community.

The electrophysiological footprint of CACNA1A disorders.

OBJECTIVES: CACNA1A variants underlie three neurological disorders: familial hemiplegic migraine type 1 (FHM1), episodic ataxia type 2 (EA2) and spinocerebellar ataxia type 6 (SCA6). EEG is applied to study their episodic manifestations, but findings in the intervals did not gain attention up to date. METHODS: We analyzed repeated EEG recordings performed between 1994 and 2019 in a large cohort of genetically confirmed CACNA1A patients. EEG findings were compared with those of CACNA1A-negative phenocopies. A review of the related literature was performed. RESULTS: 85 EEG recordings from 38 patients (19 EA2, 14 FHM1, 5 SCA6) were analyzed. Baseline EEG was abnormal in 55% of cases (12 EA2, 9 FHM1). The most common finding was a lateralized intermittent slowing, mainly affecting the temporal region. Slowing was more pronounced after a recent attack but was consistently detected in the majority of patients also during the follow-up. Interictal epileptic discharges (IEDs) were detected in eight patients (7 EA2,1 FHM1). EEG abnormalities and especially IEDs were significantly associated with younger age at examination (16 ± 9 vs 43 ± 21 years in those without epileptic changes, p = 0.003) and with earlier onset of disease (1 (1-2) vs 12 (5-45) years, p = 0.0009). EEG findings in CACNA1A-negative phenocopies (n = 15) were largely unremarkable (p = 0.03 in the comparison with CACNA1A patients). CONCLUSIONS: EEG abnormalities between attacks are highly prevalent in episodic CACNA1A disorders and especially associated with younger age at examination and earlier disease onset. Our findings underpin an age-dependent effect of CACNA1A variants, with a more severe impairment when P/Q channel dysfunction manifests early in life.

Cardiovascular autonomic testing in the work-up of cerebellar ataxia: insight from an observational single center study.

BACKGROUND: Cerebellar ataxias are a heterogeneous group of disorders of both genetic and non-genetic origin. In sporadic cases, two entities are recognized: multiple system atrophy of cerebellar type (MSA-C) and SAOA (sporadic adult-onset ataxia). The presence of severe cardiovascular autonomic failure reliably distinguishes MSA-C from other ataxias, but it may appear only late in the disease course. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the diagnostic yield of cardiovascular autonomic function tests in the work-up of cerebellar ataxia. METHODS: We applied a cardiovascular autonomic tests battery in consecutive patients with neurodegenerative cerebellar ataxia and matched healthy controls. We recorded the presence of both orthostatic hypotension (OH) and blood pressure falls non-fulfilling the criteria of OH (non-OH BP). Sporadic cases were followed-up for an eventual conversion to MSA-C. RESULTS: Forty-two patients were recruited, 19 of whom with sporadic disease (2 probable MSA-C, 6 possible MSA-C, 11 SAOA). Sporadic and hereditary cases showed no difference concerning ataxia severity at baseline. At head-up tilt, non-OH BP falls were detected in nine patients, but not in controls. This finding was significantly more frequent in sporadic cases (p = 0.006) and was detected in five out of seven patients that during follow-up converted to possible/probable MSA-C. Findings at standing test were normal in four out of nine cases with non-OH BP falls at head-up tilt. CONCLUSIONS: A complete cardiovascular autonomic battery with head-up tilt can detect early signs of BP dysregulation which may be missed at bed-side tests, thus warranting its application in the first line work-up of cerebellar ataxias.

Onset features and time to diagnosis in Friedreich's Ataxia.

BACKGROUND: In rare disorders diagnosis may be delayed due to limited awareness and unspecific presenting symptoms. Herein, we address the issue of diagnostic delay in Friedreich's Ataxia (FRDA), a genetic disorder usually caused by homozygous GAA-repeat expansions. METHODS: Six hundred eleven genetically confirmed FRDA patients were recruited within a multicentric natural history study conducted by the EFACTS (European FRDA Consortium for Translational Studies, ClinicalTrials.gov -Identifier NCT02069509). Age at first symptoms as well as age at first suspicion of FRDA by a physician were collected retrospectively at the baseline visit. RESULTS: In 554 of cases (90.7%), disease presented with gait or coordination disturbances. In the others (n = 57, 9.3%), non-neurological features such as scoliosis or cardiomyopathy predated ataxia. Before the discovery of the causal mutation in 1996, median time to diagnosis was 4(IQR = 2-9) years and it improved significantly after the introduction of genetic testing (2(IQR = 1-5) years, p < 0.001). Still, after 1996, time to diagnosis was longer in patients with a) non-neurological presentation (mean 6.7, 95%CI [5.5,7.9] vs 4.5, [4.2,5] years in those with neurological presentation, p = 0.001) as well as in b) patients with late-onset (3(IQR = 1-7) vs 2(IQR = 1-5) years compared to typical onset < 25 years of age, p = 0.03). Age at onset significantly correlated with the length of the shorter GAA repeat (GAA1) in case of neurological onset (r = - 0,6; p < 0,0001), but not in patients with non-neurological presentation (r = - 0,1; p = 0,4). Across 54 siblings' pairs, differences in age at onset did not correlate with differences in GAA-repeat length (r = - 0,14, p = 0,3). CONCLUSIONS: In the genetic era, presentation with non-neurological features or in the adulthood still leads to a significant diagnostic delay in FRDA. Well-known correlations between GAA1 repeat length and disease milestones are not valid in case of atypical presentations or positive family history.

SYNE1-ataxia: Novel genotypic and phenotypic findings.

INTRODUCTION: SYNE1 encodes nesprin-1, a scaffold protein which is involved in the binding between cytoskeleton, nuclear envelope and other subcellular compartments. In 2007, recessive truncating SYNE1 mutations have been linked to a genetic form of pure cerebellar ataxia with adult onset and mild phenotype. Subsequent reports described a number of patients with SYNE1-ataxia and widespread neurological involvement including features of motor neuron disease. Recently, heterozygote missense SYNE1 mutations have been associated with muscular disorders, such as Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, arthrogryposis multiplex congenita and dilated cardiomyopathy. METHODS: Herein we describe novel genotypic and phenotypic findings in an independent cohort of 5 patients with SYNE1-ataxia referring to the Department of Neurology of the Innsbruck Medical University and performed a review of the related literature. RESULTS: We report 3 novel mutations and describe for the first time myocardial involvement in a patient with a complicated spastic-ataxic phenotype and C-terminal mutation. In the literature, mutations associated with additional motor neuron signs spanned over the entire gene, but patients with a particularly severe phenotype and premature death bore C-terminal mutations. CONCLUSION: Our findings support a genotype-phenotype correlation in SYNE1-ataxia and suggest the need for a systematic cardiologic evaluation in the setting of complicated spastic-ataxia phenotypes.

Intraepidermal Nerve Fiber Density in Friedreich's Ataxia.

Friedreich's Ataxia (FRDA) is caused by a homozygous intronic GAA expansion in the FXN gene. FRDA affects primarily the peripheral nervous system (PNS) with cumulative evidence from postmortem studies and in vitro models suggesting a developmental component of its pathology. In the present study, we aimed at gaining further insight in the PNS involvement in FRDA by investigating small nerve fibers in vivo. For this purpose, we evaluated the intraepidermal nerve fiber (IENF) density in skin-biopsies of the lower leg and applied clinical assessments of small fiber function (painDETECT, quantitative sensory testing) in 17 FRDAs. Mean IENF density was significantly lower in FRDAs compared to controls (5.77 ± 4.68 vs 9.33 ± 1.41, p = 0.013). Clinically, cold detection threshold was decreased in FRDAs (FRDA = -3.47(-6.64; -3.14), controls = -1.71 (-3.43; -1.23), p = 0.001) while other measures of small fiber function such as warm and pain sensation thresholds did not differ from controls. Five patients had sensory complaints, but none was diagnosed with neuropathic pain at painDETECT. The degree of small fiber loss was markedly variable in our cohort and showed an inverse correlation with the GAA repeat length (R2 = 0.573, p = 0.001). Our findings support a genetically determined small fiber loss in FRDA.

Autonomic function testing in Friedreich's ataxia.

BACKGROUND: Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) is an inherited movement disorder which manifests with progressive gait instability, sensory loss and cardiomyopathy. Peripheral neuropathy is an established feature of FRDA. At neuropathological examination, a depletion of large, myelinated axons is evident, but also unmyelinated fibers are affected which may result in a variety of sensory and autonomic signs and symptoms. Impaired temperature perception, vasomotor disturbances of lower extremities and a high prevalence of urinary symptoms have been documented in FRDA, but data from autonomic function testing in genetically confirmed cases are lacking. METHODS: Genetically confirmed FRDAs were recruited in an outpatient setting. In a screening visit, general and neurological examination, laboratory testing, ECG and echocardiography were performed. Autonomic functions were evaluated by means of systematic questionnaires (SCOPA-Aut, OHQ), skin sympathetic reflex and cardiovascular autonomic function testing (CAFT). For the latter, a comparison with matched healthy controls was performed. RESULTS: 20 patients were recruited and 13 underwent CAFT. Symptoms referred to multiple autonomic domains, particularly bladder function, thermoregulation and sweating were reported. SCOPA-Aut scores were significantly predicted by disease severity. At CAFT, FRDAs did not differ from controls except for increased heart rate at rest and during orthostatic challenge. Two patients had non-neurogenic orthostatic hypotension (14%). Skin sympathetic responses were pathologic in 3 out of 10 patients (of whom 2 aged > 50). CONCLUSIONS: FRDA patients may experience several autonomic symptoms and overall their burden correlates with disease severity. Nonetheless, clinical testing shows no major involvement of sudomotor and cardiovascular autonomic function.

Bicistronic CACNA1A Gene Expression in Neurons Derived from Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 6 Patient-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 6 (SCA6) is an autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disorder that is caused by a CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion in the CACNA1A gene. As one of the few bicistronic genes discovered in the human genome, CACNA1A encodes not only the α1A subunit of the P/Q type voltage-gated Ca2+ channel CaV2.1 but also the α1ACT protein, a 75 kDa transcription factor sharing the sequence of the cytoplasmic C-terminal tail of the α1A subunit. Isoforms of both proteins contain the polyglutamine (polyQ) domain that is expanded in SCA6 patients. Although certain SCA6 phenotypes appear to be specific for Purkinje neurons, other pathogenic effects of the SCA6 polyQ mutation can affect a broad spectrum of central nervous system (CNS) neuronal subtypes. We investigated the expression and function of CACNA1A gene products in human neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells from two SCA6 patients. Expression levels of CACNA1A encoding α1A subunit were similar between SCA6 and control neurons, and no differences were found in the subcellular distribution of CaV2.1 channel protein. The α1ACT immunoreactivity was detected in the majority of cell nuclei of SCA6 and control neurons. Although no SCA6 genotype-dependent differences in CaV2.1 channel function were observed, they were found in the expression levels of the α1ACT target gene Granulin (GRN) and in glutamate-induced cell vulnerability.

Clinical and genetic characteristics of sporadic adult-onset degenerative ataxia.

OBJECTIVE: To define the clinical phenotype and natural history of sporadic adult-onset degenerative ataxia and to identify putative disease-causing mutations. METHODS: The primary measure of disease severity was the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA). DNA samples were screened for mutations using a high-coverage ataxia-specific gene panel in combination with next-generation sequencing. RESULTS: The analysis was performed on 249 participants. Among them, 83 met diagnostic criteria of clinically probable multiple system atrophy cerebellar type (MSA-C) at baseline and another 12 during follow-up. Positive MSA-C criteria (4.94 ± 0.74, p < 0.0001) and disease duration (0.22 ± 0.06 per additional year, p = 0.0007) were associated with a higher SARA score. Forty-eight participants who did not fulfill MSA-C criteria and had a disease duration of >10 years were designated sporadic adult-onset ataxia of unknown etiology/non-MSA (SAOA/non-MSA). Compared with MSA-C, SAOA/non-MSA patients had lower SARA scores (13.6 ± 6.0 vs 16.0 ± 5.8, p = 0.0200) and a slower annual SARA increase (1.1 ± 2.3 vs 3.3 ± 3.2, p = 0.0013). In 11 of 194 tested participants (6%), a definitive or probable genetic diagnosis was made. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides quantitative data on the clinical phenotype and progression of sporadic ataxia with adult onset. Screening for causative mutations with a gene panel approach yielded a genetic diagnosis in 6% of the cohort. CLINICALTRIALSGOV REGISTRATION: NCT02701036.

Acquired ataxias: the clinical spectrum, diagnosis and management.

Acquired ataxias represent a large group of disorders defined by the common clinical feature of ataxia and the absence of a clear genetic basis for it. Based on the aetiology, the group can be subdivided into autoimmune, toxic, infectious and vitamin deficiency causes. Cerebellar ataxia may occur as an isolated syndrome in this spectrum of disorders but is often accompanied by additional neurological manifestations. Clinical work-up is challenging and mainly includes biochemical analyses, whereas imaging is of minor significance. Diagnosis is essential as many of these disorders represent potential treatable conditions and early therapy may prevent progressive cerebellar ataxia. The clinical findings, the implications for diagnosis and management of this heterogeneous group of disorders are discussed in this review.

Episodic ataxia type 2: phenotype characteristics of a novel CACNA1A mutation and review of the literature.

Episodic ataxia type 2 (EA2) is an autosomal dominant inherited neurological disorder that is characterized by paroxysmal episodes of ataxia. The causative gene for EA2 is CACNA1A which codes for the alpha 1A subunit of the voltage-gated P/Q-type calcium channel (Cav2.1). We detected a novel point mutation in the CACNA1A gene in a large Austrian family. All ten affected family members harbored a heterozygous c.3089+2T>C nucleotide exchange in intron 19. In silico modeling demonstrated a loss of the splice site of exon 19 by the mutation, which most likely results in exon skipping without frameshifting or use of an alternative splice site.Clinically, the family exhibited frequent ataxic episodes accompanied by headache in some individuals, which showed a good treatment response to acetazolamide or aminopyridine. Interictal phenotype variability was high ranging from an unremarkable clinical examination to a progressive cerebellar syndrome. Detailed cognitive testing with standardized neuropsychological tests revealed specific deficits in various domains including memory,executive functions and visual abilities. Moreover, a striking coincidence of socio-phobic behavior and anxiety disorders was detected within this family, which interfered with activities of daily living and has to be taken in consideration in EA2 patient management. We here characterize the phenotype of this novel CACNA1A mutation,review the respective literature and discuss implications on diagnosis and patient management.