Phenazine Cations as Anticancer Theranostics†.

The biological properties of two water-soluble organic cations based on polypyridyl structures commonly used as ligands for photoactive transition metal complexes designed to interact with biomolecules are investigated. A cytotoxicity screen employing a small panel of cell lines reveals that both cations show cytotoxicity toward cancer cells but show reduced cytotoxicity to noncancerous HEK293 cells with the more extended system being notably more active. Although it is not a singlet oxygen sensitizer, the more active cation also displayed enhanced potency on irradiation with visible light, making it active at nanomolar concentrations. Using the intrinsic luminescence of the cations, their cellular uptake was investigated in more detail, revealing that the active compound is more readily internalized than its less lipophilic analogue. Colocalization studies with established cell probes reveal that the active cation predominantly localizes within lysosomes and that irradiation leads to the disruption of mitochondrial structure and function. Stimulated emission depletion (STED) nanoscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging reveal that treatment results in distinct lysosomal swelling and extensive cellular vacuolization. Further imaging-based studies confirm that treatment with the active cation induces lysosomal membrane permeabilization, which triggers lysosome-dependent cell-death due to both necrosis and caspase-dependent apoptosis. A preliminary toxicity screen in the Galleria melonella animal model was carried out on both cations and revealed no detectable toxicity up to concentrations of 80 mg/kg. Taken together, these studies indicate that this class of synthetically easy-to-access photoactive compounds offers potential as novel therapeutic leads.

A Ruthenium(II) Polypyridyl Complex Disrupts Actin Cytoskeleton Assembly and Blocks Cytokinesis.

The dinuclear RuII complex [(Ru(phen)2 )2 (tpphz)]4+ (phen=1,10-phenanthroline, tpphz=tetrapyridophenazine) "RuRuPhen" blocks the transformation of G-actin monomers to F-actin filaments with no disassembly of pre-formed F-actin. Molecular docking studies indicate multiple RuRuPhen molecules bind to the surface of G-actin but not the binding pockets of established actin polymerisation inhibitors. In cells, addition of RuRuPhen causes rapid disruption to actin stress fibre organisation, compromising actomyosin contractility and cell motility; due to this effect RuRuPhen interferes with late-stage cytokinesis. Immunofluorescent microscopy reveals that RuRuPhen causes cytokinetic abscission failure by interfering with endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) complex recruitment.

A Minimal Load-and-Lock RuII Luminescent DNA Probe.

Threading intercalators bind DNA with high affinities. Here, we describe single-molecule studies on a cell-permeant luminescent dinuclear ruthenium(II) complex that has been previously shown to thread only into short, unstable duplex structures. Using optical tweezers and confocal microscopy, we show that this complex threads and locks into force-extended duplex DNA in a two-step mechanism. Detailed kinetic studies reveal that an individual stereoisomer of the complex exhibits the highest binding affinity reported for such a mono-intercalator. This stereoisomer better preserves the biophysical properties of DNA than the widely used SYTOX Orange. Interestingly, threading into torsionally constrained DNA decreases dramatically, but is rescued on negatively supercoiled DNA. Given the "light-switch" properties of this complex on binding DNA, it can be readily used as a long-lived luminescent label for duplex or negatively supercoiled DNA through a unique "load-and-lock" protocol.

A Dinuclear Ruthenium(II) Complex Excited by Near-Infrared Light through Two-Photon Absorption Induces Phototoxicity Deep within Hypoxic Regions of Melanoma Cancer Spheroids.

The dinuclear photo-oxidizing RuII complex [{Ru(TAP2)}2(tpphz)]4+ (TAP = 1,4,5,8- tetraazaphenanthrene, tpphz = tetrapyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c:3″,2''-h:2‴,3'''-j]phenazine), 14+, is readily taken up by live cells localizing in mitochondria and nuclei. In this study, the two-photon absorption cross section of 14+ is quantified and its use as a two-photon absorbing phototherapeutic is reported. It was confirmed that the complex is readily photoexcited using near-infrared, NIR, and light through two-photon absorption, TPA. In 2-D cell cultures, irradiation with NIR light at low power results in precisely focused phototoxicity effects in which human melanoma cells were killed after 5 min of light exposure. Similar experiments were then carried out in human cancer spheroids that provide a realistic tumor model for the development of therapeutics and phototherapeutics. Using the characteristic emission of the complex as a probe, its uptake into 280 µm spheroids was investigated and confirmed that the spheroid takes up the complex. Notably TPA excitation results in more intense luminescence being observed throughout the depth of the spheroids, although emission intensity still drops off toward the necrotic core. As 14+ can directly photo-oxidize DNA without the mediation of singlet oxygen or other reactive oxygen species, phototoxicity within the deeper, hypoxic layers of the spheroids was also investigated. To quantify the penetration of these phototoxic effects, 14+ was photoexcited through TPA at a power of 60 mW, which was progressively focused in 10 µm steps throughout the entire z-axis of individual spheroids. These experiments revealed that, in irradiated spheroids treated with 14+, acute and rapid photoinduced cell death was observed throughout their depth, including the hypoxic region.

Making the Right Link to Theranostics: The Photophysical and Biological Properties of Dinuclear RuII-ReI dppz Complexes Depend on Their Tether.

The synthesis of new dinuclear complexes containing linked RuII(dppz) and ReI(dppz) moieties is reported. The photophysical and biological properties of the new complex, which incorporates a N,N'-bis(4-pyridylmethyl)-1,6-hexanediamine tether ligand, are compared to a previously reported RuII/ReI complex linked by a simple dipyridyl alkane ligand. Although both complexes bind to DNA with similar affinities, steady-state and time-resolved photophysical studies reveal that the nature of the linker affects the excited state dynamics of the complexes and their DNA photocleavage properties. Quantum-based DFT calculations on these systems offer insights into these effects. While both complexes are live cells permeant, their intracellular localizations are significantly affected by the nature of the linker. Notably, one of the complexes displayed concentration-dependent localization and possesses photophysical properties that are compatible with SIM and STED nanoscopy. This allowed the dynamics of its intracellular localization to be tracked at super resolutions.

Structural Investigation into the Threading Intercalation of a Chiral Dinuclear Ruthenium(II) Polypyridyl Complex through a B-DNA Oligonucleotide.

Herein we report the separation of the three stereoisomers of the DNA light-switch compound [{Ru(bpy)2}2(tpphz)]4+ (tpphz = tetrapyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c:3″,2″-h:2‴,3‴-j]phenazine) by column chromatography and the characterization of each stereoisomer by X-ray crystallography. The interaction of these compounds with a DNA octanucleotide d(GCATATCG).d(CGATATGC) has been studied using NMR techniques. Selective deuteration of the bipyridyl rings was needed to provide sufficient spectral resolution to characterize structures. NMR-derived structures for these complexes show a threading intercalation binding mode with slow and chirality-dependent rates. This represents the first solution structure of an intercalated bis-ruthenium ligand. Intriguingly, we find that the binding site selectivity is dependent on the nature of the stereoisomer employed, with Λ RuII centers showing a better intercalation fit.

In Vitro and In Vivo Studies on a Mononuclear Ruthenium Complex Reveals It is a Highly Effective, Fast-Acting, Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial in Physiologically Relevant Conditions.

The crystal structure of a previously reported antimicrobial RuII complex that targets bacterial DNA is presented. Studies utilizing clinical isolates of Gram-negative bacteria that cause catheter-associated urinary tract infection, (CA)UTI, in media that model urine and plasma reveal that good antimicrobial activity is maintained in all conditions tested. Experiments with a series of Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates show that, unlike the majority of previously reported RuII-based antimicrobial leads, the compound retains its potent activity even in MRSA strains. Furthermore, experiments using bacteria in early exponential growth and at different pHs reveal that the compound also retains its activity across a range of conditions that are relevant to those encountered in clinical settings. Combinatorial studies involving cotreatment with conventional antibiotics or a previously reported analogous dinuclear RuII complex showed no antagonistic effects. In fact, although all combinations show distinct additive antibacterial activity, in one case, this effect approaches synergy. It was found that the Galleria Mellonella model organism infected with a multidrug resistant strain of the ESKAPE pathogen Acinetobacter baumannii could be successfully treated and totally cleared within 48 h after a single dose of the lead complex with no detectable deleterious effect to the host.

A Ruthenium(II) Polypyridyl Complex Disrupts Actin Cytoskeleton Assembly and Blocks Cytokinesis.

The dinuclear RuII complex [(Ru(phen)2)2(tpphz)]4+ (phen=1,10-phenanthroline, tpphz=tetrapyridophenazine) "RuRuPhen" blocks the transformation of G-actin monomers to F-actin filaments with no disassembly of pre-formed F-actin. Molecular docking studies indicate multiple RuRuPhen molecules bind to the surface of G-actin but not the binding pockets of established actin polymerisation inhibitors. In cells, addition of RuRuPhen causes rapid disruption to actin stress fibre organisation, compromising actomyosin contractility and cell motility; due to this effect RuRuPhen interferes with late-stage cytokinesis. Immunofluorescent microscopy reveals that RuRuPhen causes cytokinetic abscission failure by interfering with endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) complex recruitment.

Ruthenium based antimicrobial theranostics - using nanoscopy to identify therapeutic targets and resistance mechanisms in Staphylococcus aureus.

In previous studies we reported that specific dinuclear RuII complexes are particularly active against pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria and, unusually for this class of compounds, appeared to display lowered activity against Gram-positive bacteria. With the aim of identifying resistance mechanisms specific to Gram-positive bacteria, the uptake and antimicrobial activity of the lead complex against Staphylococcus aureus SH1000 and other isolates, including MRSA was investigated. This revealed differential, strain specific, sensitivity to the complex. Exploiting the inherent luminescent properties of the RuII complex, super-resolution STED nanoscopy was used to image its initial interaction with S. aureus and confirm its cellular internalization. Membrane damage assays and transmission electron microscopy confirm that the complex disrupts the bacterial membrane structure before internalization, which ultimately results in a small amount of DNA damage. A known resistance mechanism against cationic antimicrobials in Gram-positive bacteria involves increased expression of the mprF gene as this results in an accumulation of positively charged lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol on the outer leaflet of the cytoplasmic membrane that electrostatically repel cationic species. Consistent with this model, it was found that an mprF deficient strain was particularly susceptible to treatment with the lead complex. More detailed co-staining studies also revealed that the complex was more active in S. aureus strains missing, or with altered, wall teichoic acids.