Persistent organic pollutants and organophosphate esters in feathers and blood plasma of adult kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) from Svalbard - associations with body condition and thyroid hormones.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) were assessed in blood plasma and feathers of 19 adult black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) breeding in two colonies (Blomstrandhalvøya and Krykkjefjellet) at the Arctic archipelago, Svalbard. Potential associations with body condition index (BCI) and thyroid hormones were investigated. All compound classes were detected in both blood plasma and feathers, but due to low sample size and volumes, OPEs could only be quantified in four individuals, warranting larger follow-up studies. Kittiwakes breeding at Blomstrandhalvøya had significantly higher concentrations of organic pollutants in blood plasma than kittiwakes breeding at Krykkjefjellet (p < 0.001). Concentrations in blood plasma and feathers did not significantly correlate for any of the investigated compounds, and feather concentrations did not differ significantly between the colonies. This suggests that pollutant levels in adult kittiwake feathers do not reflect local contamination at breeding sites and are as such not useful to monitor local contamination at Svalbard. Significant negative associations between BCI and most pollutants were found in both populations, whereas significant correlations between the BCI, the ratio of total triiodothyronine to free triiodothyronine (TT3:fT3), and several pollutants were only found for kittiwakes from Blomstrandhalvøya (all r ≥ -0.60 and p ≤ 0.05). This indicates that higher levels of circulating pollutants during the breeding period covary with the TT3: fT3 ratio, and may act as an additional stressor during this period.

Differential reproductive responses to stress reveal the role of life-history strategies within a species.

Life-history strategies describe that 'slow'- in contrast to 'fast'-living species allocate resources cautiously towards reproduction to enhance survival. Recent evidence suggests that variation in strategies exists not only among species but also among populations of the same species. Here, we examined the effect of experimentally induced stress on resource allocation of breeding seabirds in two populations with contrasting life-history strategies: slow-living Pacific and fast-living Atlantic black-legged kittiwakes. We tested the hypothesis that reproductive responses in kittiwakes under stress reflect their life-history strategies. We predicted that in response to stress, Pacific kittiwakes reduce investment in reproduction compared with Atlantic kittiwakes. We exposed chick-rearing kittiwakes to a short-term (3-day) period of increased exogenous corticosterone (CORT), a hormone that is released during food shortages. We examined changes in baseline CORT levels, parental care and effects on offspring. We found that kittiwakes from the two populations invested differently in offspring when facing stress. In response to elevated CORT, Pacific kittiwakes reduced nest attendance and deserted offspring more readily than Atlantic kittiwakes. We observed lower chick growth, a higher stress response in offspring and lower reproductive success in response to CORT implantation in Pacific kittiwakes, whereas the opposite occurred in the Atlantic. Our findings support the hypothesis that life-history strategies predict short-term responses of individuals to stress within a species. We conclude that behaviour and physiology under stress are consistent with trade-off priorities as predicted by life-history theory. We encourage future studies to consider the pivotal role of life-history strategies when interpreting inter-population differences of animal responses to stressful environmental events.

The Svalbard glaucous gull as bioindicator species in the European arctic: insight from 35 years of contaminants research.

Biomonitoring survey conducted with glaucous gulls from Svalbard have demonstrated that this top-predator-scavenger species accumulates a wide array of chemicals of environmental concern, including organohalogens, trace elements, organometals, and several non-halogenated and non-metallic-compounds. Among these contaminants are those subjected to global bans or restrictions in North America and Europe (e.g., legacy OC's, penta-, and octa-PBDE technical mixtures and mercury). In addition, some currently produced chemicals were found in gulls that lack and global use regulation (e.g., deca-PBDE , HBCD, and other non-PBDE BFR additives, siloxanes, and selected PFASs). Svalbard glaucous gulls are also exposed to contaminant metabolites that, at time, are more bioactive than their precursors (e.g., oxychlordane, p,p'-DDE, OH- and MeSo2-PCBs, and OH-PBDEs) Concentrations of legacy OCs (PCBs, DDTs, CHLs, CBzs, dieldrin, PCDD/Fs, and mirec) in tissues, blood, and eggs of Svalbard glaucous gulls have displayed the highest contamination levels among glaucous gull populations that inhabit Greenland (Cleemann et al. 2000) Jan Mayen (Gabrielsen et al. 1997), Alaska (Vander Pol et al. 2009), and the Canadian Arctic (Braune et a. 2005). To date, measurements obtaines on more novel organohalogens (e.g., OH- and MeSo2-containing metabolites, BFRs and PFASs) in Svalbard glaucous gull samples generally confirm that the spatial and trophodynamic trends of the legacy OC concentrations, whereas no clear trend emerges from surveys of trace elements and organometals. Using the glaucous gull as biosentinel species provides clear evidence that Svalbard and the European Arctic environment is exposed to a complex mixture of legacy and more recently introduced PBT-like substances.

Free and forced diving in birds.

Heart rates were measured during free and forced diving on each of two species of aquatic birds: the double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus), a true diver, and the Canada goose (Branta candensis), a bottom feeder in shallow water. When they immersed voluntarily they showed no bradycardia, but when the same birds were forcibly held under water there was a rapid drop in heart rate to well below that at rest. This decrease indicates that ther may be a large component of emotional stress in the heart rate records from previous diving studies where restrained animals were forcibly submerged.

The organization of the psychiatric service and criminality committed by the mentally ill.

INTRODUCTION: Over the past 40 years, a marked deinstitutionalisation in favour of social and community psychiatry has taken place in many countries. During this same period of time, there has been an increase in the number of mentally ill criminals. The purpose of this study is to analyse the correlations between the reorganization of the psychiatric treatment system, the growing number of forensic patients and the increase in serious crime, homicide, arson and violence associated with the mentally ill. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using registers and other data sources, we estimated the annual positive or negative growth rate of consumed psychiatric beds and in social and community psychiatry (explanatory variables) and in prevalence and incidence of forensic patients, homicide, arson and violence (response variables) from 1980 to 1997 for each of the Danish counties. We analysed the immediate effect of the changing treatment structure by relating response variables to explanatory variables. The long-term effect was analysed in the form of between county analysis with both single and multiple regressions. RESULTS: Bed closure had no immediate effect on either the number of forensic patients or serious criminality. The between county analysis shows, however, that over time the (negative) growth rate in number of consumed beds is significantly correlated with the (positive) growth rates for forensic patients, homicide and arson. Social and community psychiatry have little effect, if any. DISCUSSION: The study is based on historical data, but the results are still valid. We have used two sets of data firstly the number of forensic patients and, secondly the reported number of crimes associated with the mentally ill. The uniformity of the results leads us to consider them for certain: That the decreasing effort invested in inpatient treatment is causing an increase in the crime rate among the mentally ill. CONCLUSION: Many forensic patients suffer from schizophrenia. These patients are not only offenders, but also the victims of an inadequate treatment system. Modern inpatient treatment facilities should be established.

Spatial and temporal changes of chlorinated pesticides, PCBs, dioxins (PCDDs/PCDFs) and brominated flame retardants in human breast milk from Northern Russia.

This study presents for the first time temporal changes of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Russian human breast milk samples. Concentrations of OCPs and PCBs in samples from three locations in the North West of Russia in 2000-2002 (n=42), were compared to corresponding levels measured in 1993-1996 (n=58). In addition brominated flame retardants (BFRs), consisting of polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) (including BDE-209) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) were analysed in samples from 2000-2002 (n=37). The present levels of SigmaDDTs and SigmaHCHs were 5 and 10 times higher than corresponding levels in the neighbouring country Norway. Median concentrations of SigmaHCHs (196 microg/kg lw), SigmaCHBs (19.7 microg/kg lw) and SigmaPCBs(16) (316 microg/kg lw) were highest in Murmansk. The percentage of p,p'-DDT to SigmaDDTs and ratio DDE/DDT suggest possible ongoing use of DDT in Russia. Levels of PBDE were low and dominated by the congeners BDE-47 and BDE-153. The deca brominated BDE-209 was detected in all analysed samples (median concentration 0.19 microg/kg lipid). Levels of SigmaOCPs and SigmaPCBs decreased 56 and 30% in Murmansk and 36 and 43% in Arkhangelsk during the study period. The decline of SigmaOCPs was significant at both locations (p<0.05-p<0.0001). For SigmaPCBs, the decreasing trend was only significant in Arkhangelsk (p<0.0001). In addition, a decline of Sigmatotal TEQs (SigmaTEQs of PCDDs/PCDFs, non-ortho- and mono-ortho PCBs) was observed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk during the study period. The exposure of infants by PCDDs/PCDFs and dioxin-like PCBs is still exceeding the daily tolerable intake (TDI) in North West Russia. However, the concentrations of PCDDs/PCDFs and dioxin-like PCBs seem to decline very rapidly.

Organohalogen and metabolically-derived contaminants and associations with whole body constituents in Norwegian Arctic glaucous gulls.

Comprehensive surveys of organohalogen contaminants have been conducted in various tissues and blood of glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), a top scavenger-predator species in Svalbard in the Norwegian Arctic. However, the physico-chemical properties of organohalogens (e.g., type and degree of halogenation and the presence or absence of additional phenyl group substituents) that may influence toxicokinetics, and subsequently tissue-specific accumulation, have yet to be studied in this species. We investigated the concentrations, total body burdens, and compositional patterns of legacy chlorinated compounds (PCBs and chlordanes (CHLs)), metabolically-derived PCBs (methylsulfonyl (MeSO(2))- and OH-PCBs), brominated flame retardants (polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), total-hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)), and PBDE metabolites and/or naturally-occurring compounds with similar structures (MeO- and OH-PBDEs) in liver, blood and whole body homogenate samples of adult glaucous gulls (n=19) from Svalbard. Further, we examined the distribution of these organohalogens and metabolites in relation to whole body composition of glaucous gulls, i.e., the total water, protein, lipid and mineral contents in whole homogenate carcasses. The total body burden of organohalogens and metabolites in glaucous gulls ranged between 3.3 and 33.0 mg. Compound class distribution showed that the relative proportions of sum (Sigma) OH-PCB and SigmaOH-PBDE to the total organohalogen concentrations were significantly highest in blood. Conversely, the SigmaCHL and SigmaPCB showed generally higher proportions in the lipid-rich liver as well as in whole body homogenates. No significant difference in the compositional patterns of individual congeners/compounds was found among tissues/blood, with the exception of the classes comprised of less polar brominated compounds (PBDEs, PBBs and total-(alpha)-HBCD). Total proteins isolated from the whole body homogenates of glaucous gulls were significantly associated to the proportions of SigmaOH-PCB and SigmaPBDE. A non-significant positive association was found between total lipids and the SigmaPCB proportions. The present study suggests that both protein association and lipid solubility are important concomitant factors to be considered in the toxicokinetics and fate of contaminants as a function of chemical structure and properties, e.g., chlorination, bromination and the presence of other phenyl substituents such as OH group. An enhanced, selective retention of these organohalogen classes in given tissues/body compartments may thus lead to site-specific toxicological actions and adverse effects in the highly-contaminated Svalbard glaucous gulls.

Selective bioaccumulation of chlorinated pesticides and metabolites in Arctic seabirds.

Chlorinated pesticides and metabolites (CPs) were quantified in the seabird species: little auk (Alle alle), Brünnich's guillemot (Uria lomvia), black guillemot (Cepphus grylle) and black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla). The purpose was to evaluate avian accumulation of selected CPs based on their concentrations and relative patterns, their relation to dietary descriptors (stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen), to enzymes involved in biotransformation, as well as CPs' accumulation potential relative to the recalcitrant polychlorinated biphenyl PCB-153. In all species, the CP pattern was dominated by p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDE) and hexachlorbenzene (HCB). Except for HCB, concentrations were not related to trophic position. Most CPs were quantified in black guillemot, indicating a slower elimination compared to other seabird species. Brünnich's guillemot showed efficient elimination of chlordanes, whereas the opposite was found for little auk. Kittiwake showed higher accumulation of persistent CP and metabolites than auks, whereas accumulation of less recalcitrant CPs was low.

Seasonal variation in accumulation of persistent organic pollutants in an Arctic marine benthic food web.

The aim of the present study was to investigate seasonal variation in persistent organic pollutant (POP) concentrations, as well as food-web biomagnification, in an Arctic, benthic marine community. Macrozoobenthos, demersal fish and common eiders were collected both inside and outside of Kongsfjorden, Svalbard, during May, July and October 2007. The samples were analysed for a selection of legacy chlorinated POPs. Overall, low levels of POPs were measured in all samples. Although POP levels and accumulation patterns showed some seasonal variation, the magnitude and direction of change was not consistent among species. Overall, seasonality in bioaccumulation in benthic biota was less pronounced than in the pelagic system in Kongsfjorden. In addition, the results indicate that δ(15)N is not a good predictor for POP-levels in benthic food chains. Other factors, such as feeding strategy (omnivory, necrophagy versus herbivory), degree of contact with the sediment, and a high dependence on particulate organic matter (POM), with low POP-levels and high δ(15)N-values (due to bacterial isotope enrichment), seem to govern the uptake of the different POPs and result in loads deviating from what would be expected consulting the trophic position alone.

Polychlorinated biphenyl exposure and corticosterone levels in seven polar seabird species.

The role of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on exposure-related endocrine effects has been poorly investigated in wild birds. This is the case for stress hormones including corticosterone (CORT). Some studies have suggested that environmental exposure to PCBs and altered CORT secretion might be associated. Here we investigated the relationships between blood PCB concentrations and circulating CORT levels in seven free-ranging polar seabird species occupying different trophic positions, and hence covering a wide range of PCB exposure. Blood ∑7PCB concentrations (range: 61-115,632 ng/g lw) were positively associated to baseline or stress-induced CORT levels in three species and negatively associated to stress-induced CORT levels in one species. Global analysis suggests that in males, baseline CORT levels generally increase with increasing blood ∑7PCB concentrations, whereas stress-induced CORT levels decrease when reaching high blood ∑7PCB concentrations. This study suggests that the nature of the PCB-CORT relationships may depend on the level of PCB exposure.

Heat increment of feeding in Brunnich's guillemot

The rate of oxygen consumption (O2), respiratory quotient (RQ) and deep body temperature (TB) were recorded during a single, voluntary ingestion of Arctic cod Boreogadus saida (mean mass 18.9+/-1.1 g, s.e.m., N=13) by five postabsorptive Brunnich's guillemots (thick-billed murre, Uria lomvia). The birds were resting in air within their thermoneutral zone, and the fish were refrigerated to 0-2 degreesC. The rate of oxygen consumption increased by a factor of 1.4 during the first few minutes after ingestion, but there was no significant change in TB. Mean rate of oxygen consumption returned to preingestive levels 85 min after the birds ate the fish. The telemetered temperature of one fish reached TB within 20 min. This suggests that the persistent elevation in O2 over the next hour corresponded to the obligatory component of the heat increment of feeding (HIF) and was not related to heating the fish. Abdominal temperature increases after diving bouts in free-ranging common guillemots (common murre, Uria aalge) are possibly achieved through the HIF, since meals are processed at sea. Of the increase in O2 measured in the laboratory, it is calculated that 30 % is required to heat the fish, while 70 % is due to the HIF. In free-ranging birds, the excess heat provided by the HIF could contribute 6 % of the daily energy expenditure. This suggests that the HIF augments heat production in Uria spp. and thus reduces the energetic cost of thermoregulation.

Orienting and freezing responses in incubating ptarmigan hens.

Behavior studies and telemetric recordings of heart and respiration rates were performed on five wild and two captive, incubating, willow ptarmigan hens (Lagopus lagopus lagopus) and on four wild, incubating, Svalbard ptarmigan hens (Lagopus mutus hyperboreus). Sounds and sight of approaching humans, egg predators, or dogs near the nests elicited behavior in the hens which we have interpreted as an orienting response (OR) followed by freezing behavior. During both types of behavioral responses, heart rate was reduced from 204 +/- 39 (mean +/- SE) to 119 +/- 26 beats per minute and respiration from 25 +/- 2 to 12 +/- 3 breaths per minute. In wild incubating willow ptarmigan, further approach led to tachycardia and increased respiration. Some birds maintained freezing behavior, while others became restless before flying off. Two of the four incubating Svalbard ptarmigan hens showed the OR followed by freezing behavior accompanied by decreased heart and respiration rates. The other two birds showed flight response, restless behavior accompanied by increased heart and respiration rates. Flight behavior was also typical for willow ptarmigan incubating in captivity. Repeated auditory provocation of incubating hens caused progressive decrement in behavioral and cardiac responses that is interpreted as habituation of the OR.

Organochlorines in top predators at Svalbard--occurrence, levels and effects.

Alarmingly high polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels have been found in the top predators such as glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus) and polar bear (Ursus maritimus) at Svalbard [Gabrielsen, G.W., Skaare, J.U., Polder, A., Bakken, V., 1995. Chlorinated hydrocarbons in glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus). Sci. Total Environ. 160/161, 337-346; Bernhoft, A., Skaare, J.U., Wiig, O., 1997. Organochlorines in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) at Svalbard. Environ. Pollut. 95, 159-175; Henriksen, E.O., Gabrielsen, G.W., Trudeau, S., Wolkers, H., Sagerup, K., Skaare, J.U., 1999. Organochlorines and possible biochemical effects in glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus) from Bear Island, the Barents Sea. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. (in press). ]. Studies of the possible toxic effects, particularly on the immune system and reproduction, of the very high PCB levels in these species are currently being investigated. Data obtained in the field (f.i. reproductive success in polar bears and intestinal nematodes in glaucous gulls), as well as levels of various biochemical and physiological parameters (f.i. thyroid hormones, retinol, EROD activity, CYP1A, IgG), have been coupled with the PCB levels [Skaare, J.U., Wiig, O., Bernhoft, A., 1994. Klorerte organiske miljogifter; Nivâer og effekter i isbjorn. Norwegian Polar Institute Reportseries no. 86, 1-23 (in Norwegian); Bernhoft, A., Skaare, J.U., Wiig, O., 1997. Organochlorines in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) at Svalbard. Environ. Pollut. 95, 159-175; Bernhoft, A., Skaare, J.U., Wiig, O., Derocher, A.E., Larsen, H.J., 2000. Possible immunotoxic effects of organochlorines in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) at Svalbard (in press); Henriksen, E.O., Gabrielsen, G.W., Skaare, J.U., Skjegstad, N., Jensen, B.M., 1998a. Relationship between PCB levels, hepatic EROD activity and plasma retinol in glaucous gull, Larus hyperboreus. Marine Environ. Res. 46, 45-49; Henriksen, E.O., Gabrielsen, G.W., Trudeau, S., Wolkers, H., Sagerup, K., Skaare, J.U. , 1999. Organochlorines and possible biochemical effects in glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus) from Bear Island, the Barents Sea. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. (in press); Sagerup, K., Gabrielsen, G.W., Skorping, A., Skaare, J.U., 1998. Association between PCB concentrations and intestinal nematodes in glaucou gulls, Larus hyperboreus, from Bear Island. Organohalogen compounds 39, 449-451; Skaare, J.U., Wiig, O., Bernhoft, A., 1994. Klorerte organiske miljogifter; Nivâer og effekter i isbjorn. Norwegian Polar Institute Reportseries no. 86, 1-23. (in Norwegian)].

Biomagnification of organochlorines along a Barents Sea food chain.

To trace the biomagnification of organochlorines in marine food chains near Svalbard, which may lead to the high organochlorine concentrations in top predators from the area, we compared concentrations and patterns of organochlorines in selected taxa. The pelagic crustaceans, Calanus spp. (copepods), Thysanoessa spp. (euphausiids), Parathemisto libellula (amphipod), and the fish species, Boreogadus saida (polar cod) and Gadus morhua (cod) were selected to represent the lower trophic levels in the food web. Four seabird species were chosen at the higher trophic levels, Uria lomvia (Brünnich's guillemot), Cepphus grylle (black guillemot), Rissa tridactyla (black-legged kittiwake) and Larus hyperboreus (glaucous gull). We found low concentrations of the organochlorines sigma hexachlorocyclohexanes (sigma HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), sigma Chlordanes, sigma DDTs and sigma polychlorinated biphenyls (sigma PCBs) in crustaceans (11-50 ng g-1 lipid wt.) and fish (15-222 ng g-1 lipid wt.). In seabirds, the organochlorine concentrations biomagnified one to three orders of magnitude dependent on species and compound class. Glaucous gulls had the highest concentrations of all organochlorines. The organochlorine levels in all taxa except glaucous gull were comparable to those recorded in similar species in the Canadian Arctic. The organochlorine pattern changed from crustaceans and fish to seabirds. Moving up the food chain, the relative contribution of sigma HCHs, HCB and sigma Chlordanes decreased, and the relative contribution of sigma DDTs, sigma PCBs, persistent compounds and metabolites increased. The results reflected trophic transfer of organochlorines along the food chain as well as different elimination potentials due to direct diffusion in crustaceans and fish, and higher contaminant metabolic activity in seabirds.

Recent changes in levels of persistent organochlorines and mercury in eggs of seabirds from the Barents Sea.

Eggs of ten seabird species were collected from six regions in North Norway, Svalbard and NW Russia in 1993, and were analyzed for organochlorines (OCs) and mercury. Significant declines in levels of PCBs, p,p'-DDE, HCB, beta-HCH, gamma-HCH and oxychlordane were documented in nearly half the data set since a similar study in 1983 in six of the seabird species breeding in North Norway. Only four of the 90 paired data sets increased significantly, and the remainder remained unchanged. There was very little change in mercury levels. The decline in OCs corresponds to similar declines found in Canada and the Baltic Sea, and to declines documented in marine fish in a Norwegian fjord. They can all be attributed to the reduction in use and spread of contaminants, both in Norway and internationally. No consistent regional differences in residue levels were found.

Levels and congener pattern of polychlorinated biphenyls in kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), in relation to mobilization of body-lipids associated with reproduction.

Three groups of female kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) were collected in a North-Norwegian colony: (i) before breeding; (ii) immediately after egg-laying; and (iii) late in the chick-rearing period. Concentrations of 21 selected individual polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in liver, brain and fat tissues by capillary gaschromatography (GC-ECD). This was done in order to investigate how the mobilization of lipids associated with breeding influences concentrations and compositions of PCBs in these tissues. The results indicate an average decrease in body mass from pre-breeding to late chick-rearing of almost 20%. During this period, the mean concentration of PCBs in brain tissue approximately quadruples. This increase can be attributed to the redistribution of PCBs from utilized depot fat to metabolizing organs. A strong negative correlation was found between body mass and lipid weight PCB-concentrations in all three tissues. The relative amounts of different PCB-congeners were quite similar in different tissues, and showed only minor changes during the breeding period.

Influence of diet and sea ice drift on organochlorine bioaccumulation in Arctic ice-associated amphipods.

The drifting sea ice has been suggested as important in the transport and concentration of organic matter and pollutants in the Arctic. We collected sea ice-associated amphipods in the marginal ice zone north of Svalbard and in the Fram Strait in September 1998 and 1999 to assess contaminant accumulation in ice-associated organisms. Organochlorine concentrations increased from the more herbivorous Apherusa glacialis to the more carnivorous Gammarus wilkitzkii and the more necrophagous Onisimus spp. The relative contribution of compound classes to the sum of organochlorines differed between the amphipod families, with a higher relative contribution of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) in A. glacialis. The composition of the compound classes HCHs. chlordanes and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) was similar between the amphipod families, whereas the profiles of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) differed. The occurrence of organochlorines differed spatially, with higher alpha-HCH concentrations in amphipods from the Fram Strait in comparison with amphipods collected north of Svalbard. This could be related to the sea ice drift route, since sea ice in the Fram Strait had a drift route across the central Arctic Ocean, while the sea ice north of Svalbard had a western drift route to the sampling stations. Even though marine invertebrates have direct uptake by passive diffusion of contaminants across their gills. our results imply that the species' ecology such as diet is important in the bioaccumulation process of organic pollutants. In addition, the results show that sea ice drift route influences the concentrations of organochlorine pollutants in ice-associated organisms.

Individual variation in field metabolic rate of kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) during the chick-rearing period.

Field metabolic rate (FMR), using the doubly labelled water (DLW) method, was measured in free-ranging adult kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) early and late in the chick-rearing period at Svalbard, Norway. Individual variation in FMR was analysed by comparing FMR with body mass, sex, nest attendance, chick age, brood size, and basal metabolic rate (BMR). Mean FMR of kittiwakes during the chick-rearing period was 27.0+/-0.9 (SE) W kg(-1), while the individual variation (calculated as coefficient of variation [CV]) in FMR was 24%. Sex, time spent away from the nest, age of the chicks, and brood size contributed significantly to FMR and explained 65% of the variation in FMR. The FMR increased by 32% from early until late in the chick-rearing period. This occurred simultaneously with an increase in the time spent away from the nest. In 15 of 20 pairs, one of the mates had 15% or higher (mean of the 15 pairs, 22%+/-8%) FMR (W kg(-1)) than their partner, even though the mates spent equal amounts of time away from the nest. This indicates an intrapair conflict in FMR. The variation in total FMR of pairs was 40% less than the individual variation, and total FMR of pairs increased with age of the chicks. This indicates that the mates adjust their energy expenditure within a relatively constant FMR determined by the energy needs of the chicks. Individual variation in FMR could not be explained by variation in body mass or BMR. BMR measured late in the chick-rearing period was 26% lower than previous measurements of BMR from the prebreeding and incubation periods. The increase in FMR and simultaneous decrease in BMR caused a 40% increase in metabolic intensity (FMR/BMR) of kittiwakes during the chick-rearing period. It is suggested that the metabolic intensity is not a proper measure of the metabolic load in seabirds.

The future of homicide offenders. Results from a homicide project in Copenhagen.

As a part of a Copenhagen homicide project, 52 released homicide offenders were followed during a mean period of 9 years. Pessimistic expectations were confirmed as post-release rates of criminality, psychiatric admission, and suicide were all very high. By logistic regression analyses, young age by release, and long stay in prison were found to increase the risk of further criminality, and previous psychiatric admission was found predictive of future admission. The problems in using logistic regression analysis on variables--all of whom may be viewed as "parallel" indicators of a common tendency to adverse behaviors--are discussed. In conclusion, the results have been used for a tentative division of homicide according to the offender-victim relationship into intra-family homicide and extra-family homicide. In intra-family homicide the most important dimension seems to be the psychic state of the offender, in extra-family homicide more impact should be attributed to the social dimension.

[Homicides in Copenhagen in 1984-1989 compared with the period 1959-1983]. / Drab i København 1984-1989 sammenlignet med 1959-1983.

During the years from 1959 to 1983 the Copenhagen homicide rate doubled. This increase was due mainly to an increase in the number of "accidental" homicides committed by alcohol intoxicated males, who were only slightly acquainted with their victims. The rate of homicide committed by schizophrenic persons increased by a factor 5, increasing from 1-2 cases every five years to 1-2 cases every year. During the 1980's, the annual homicide rate has been stable. In the investigation of homicide from 1984 to 1989, however, the tendency towards more homicides of accidental type was confirmed. Furthermore, the rate of female homicide increased. During the years from 1984 to 1989 the average number of homicides committed in Copenhagen by schizophrenic persons remained in the order of 1-2 per year.