Olezarsen, Acute Pancreatitis, and Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Familial chylomicronemia syndrome is a genetic disorder associated with severe hypertriglyceridemia and severe acute pancreatitis. Olezarsen reduces the plasma triglyceride level by reducing hepatic synthesis of apolipoprotein C-III. METHODS: In a phase 3, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, we randomly assigned patients with genetically identified familial chylomicronemia syndrome to receive olezarsen at a dose of 80 mg or 50 mg or placebo subcutaneously every 4 weeks for 49 weeks. There were two primary end points: the difference between the 80-mg olezarsen group and the placebo group in the percent change in the fasting triglyceride level from baseline to 6 months, and (to be assessed if the first was significant) the difference between the 50-mg olezarsen group and the placebo group. Secondary end points included the mean percent change from baseline in the apolipoprotein C-III level and an independently adjudicated episode of acute pancreatitis. RESULTS: A total of 66 patients underwent randomization; 22 were assigned to the 80-mg olezarsen group, 21 to the 50-mg olezarsen group, and 23 to the placebo group. At baseline, the mean (±SD) triglyceride level among the patients was 2630±1315 mg per deciliter, and 71% had a history of acute pancreatitis within the previous 10 years. Triglyceride levels at 6 months were significantly reduced with the 80-mg dose of olezarsen as compared with placebo (-43.5 percentage points; 95% confidence interval [CI], -69.1 to -17.9; P<0.001) but not with the 50-mg dose (-22.4 percentage points; 95% CI, -47.2 to 2.5; P = 0.08). The difference in the mean percent change in the apolipoprotein C-III level from baseline to 6 months in the 80-mg group as compared with the placebo group was -73.7 percentage points (95% CI, -94.6 to -52.8) and between the 50-mg group as compared with the placebo group was -65.5 percentage points (95% CI, -82.6 to -48.3). By 53 weeks, 11 episodes of acute pancreatitis had occurred in the placebo group, and 1 episode had occurred in each olezarsen group (rate ratio [pooled olezarsen groups vs. placebo], 0.12; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.66). Adverse events of moderate severity that were considered by a trial investigator at the site to be related to the trial drug or placebo occurred in 4 patients in the 80-mg olezarsen group. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with familial chylomicronemia syndrome, olezarsen may represent a new therapy to reduce plasma triglyceride levels. (Funded by Ionis Pharmaceuticals; Balance ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04568434.).

VLDL Biogenesis and Secretion: It Takes a Village.

The production and secretion of VLDLs (very-low-density lipoproteins) by hepatocytes has a direct impact on liver fat content, as well as the concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides in the circulation and thus affects both liver and cardiovascular health, respectively. Importantly, insulin resistance, excess caloric intake, and lack of physical activity are associated with overproduction of VLDL, hepatic steatosis, and increased plasma levels of atherogenic lipoproteins. Cholesterol and triglycerides in remnant particles generated by VLDL lipolysis are risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and have garnered increasing attention over the last few decades. Presently, however, increased risk of atherosclerosis is not the only concern when considering today's cardiometabolic patients, as they often also experience hepatic steatosis, a prevalent disorder that can progress to steatohepatitis and cirrhosis. This duality of metabolic risk highlights the importance of understanding the molecular regulation of the biogenesis of VLDL, the lipoprotein that transports triglycerides and cholesterol out of the liver. Fortunately, there has been a resurgence of interest in the intracellular assembly, trafficking, degradation, and secretion of VLDL by hepatocytes, which has led to many exciting new molecular insights that are the topic of this review. Increasing our understanding of the biology of this pathway will aid to the identification of novel therapeutic targets to improve both the cardiovascular and the hepatic health of cardiometabolic patients. This review focuses, for the first time, on this duality.

Triglyceride Lowering with Pemafibrate to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk.

BACKGROUND: High triglyceride levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, but whether reductions in these levels would lower the incidence of cardiovascular events is uncertain. Pemafibrate, a selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α modulator, reduces triglyceride levels and improves other lipid levels. METHODS: In a multinational, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial, we assigned patients with type 2 diabetes, mild-to-moderate hypertriglyceridemia (triglyceride level, 200 to 499 mg per deciliter), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels of 40 mg per deciliter or lower to receive pemafibrate (0.2-mg tablets twice daily) or matching placebo. Eligible patients were receiving guideline-directed lipid-lowering therapy or could not receive statin therapy without adverse effects and had low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels of 100 mg per deciliter or lower. The primary efficacy end point was a composite of nonfatal myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, coronary revascularization, or death from cardiovascular causes. RESULTS: Among 10,497 patients (66.9% with previous cardiovascular disease), the median baseline fasting triglyceride level was 271 mg per deciliter, HDL cholesterol level 33 mg per deciliter, and LDL cholesterol level 78 mg per deciliter. The median follow-up was 3.4 years. As compared with placebo, the effects of pemafibrate on lipid levels at 4 months were -26.2% for triglycerides, -25.8% for very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol, -25.6% for remnant cholesterol (cholesterol transported in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins after lipolysis and lipoprotein remodeling), -27.6% for apolipoprotein C-III, and 4.8% for apolipoprotein B. A primary end-point event occurred in 572 patients in the pemafibrate group and in 560 of those in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 1.03; 95% confidence interval, 0.91 to 1.15), with no apparent effect modification in any prespecified subgroup. The overall incidence of serious adverse events did not differ significantly between the groups, but pemafibrate was associated with a higher incidence of adverse renal events and venous thromboembolism and a lower incidence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with type 2 diabetes, mild-to-moderate hypertriglyceridemia, and low HDL and LDL cholesterol levels, the incidence of cardiovascular events was not lower among those who received pemafibrate than among those who received placebo, although pemafibrate lowered triglyceride, VLDL cholesterol, remnant cholesterol, and apolipoprotein C-III levels. (Funded by the Kowa Research Institute; PROMINENT ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03071692.).

Effects of Recombinant Human Lecithin Cholesterol Acyltransferase on Lipoprotein Metabolism in Humans.

BACKGROUND: LCAT (lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase) catalyzes the conversion of unesterified, or free cholesterol, to cholesteryl ester, which moves from the surface of HDL (high-density lipoprotein) into the neutral lipid core. As this iterative process continues, nascent lipid-poor HDL is converted to a series of larger, spherical cholesteryl ester-enriched HDL particles that can be cleared by the liver in a process that has been termed reverse cholesterol transport. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, placebocontrolled, crossover study in 5 volunteers with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, to examine the effects of an acute increase of recombinant human (rh) LCAT via intravenous administration (300-mg loading dose followed by 150 mg at 48 hours) on the in vivo metabolism of HDL APO (apolipoprotein)A1 and APOA2, and the APOB100-lipoproteins, very low density, intermediate density, and low-density lipoproteins. RESULTS: As expected, recombinant human LCAT treatment significantly increased HDL-cholesterol (34.9 mg/dL; P≤0.001), and this was mostly due to the increase in cholesteryl ester content (33.0 mg/dL; P=0.014). This change did not affect the fractional clearance or production rates of HDL-APOA1 and HDL-APOA2. There were also no significant changes in the metabolism of APOB100-lipoproteins. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that an acute increase in LCAT activity drives greater flux of cholesteryl ester through the reverse cholesterol transport pathway without significantly altering the clearance and production of the main HDL proteins and without affecting the metabolism of APOB100-lipoproteins. Long-term elevations of LCAT might, therefore, have beneficial effects on total body cholesterol balance and atherogenesis.

Basic and translational evidence supporting the role of TM6SF2 in VLDL metabolism.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2 ( TM6SF2 ) gene was identified through exome-wide studies in 2014. A genetic variant from glutamic acid to lysine substitution at amino acid position 167 (NM_001001524.3:c.499G> A) (p.Gln167Lys/p.E167K, rs58542926) was discovered (p.E167K) to be highly associated with increased hepatic fat content and reduced levels of plasma triglycerides and LDL cholesterol. In this review, we focus on the discovery of TM6SF2 and its role in VLDL secretion pathways. Human data suggest TM6SF2 is linked to hepatic steatosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD), hence understanding its metabolic pathways is of high scientific interest. RECENT FINDINGS: Since its discovery, completed research studies in cell, rodent and human models have defined the role of TM6SF2 and its links to human disease. TM6SF2 resides in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the ER-Golgi interface and helps with the lipidation of nascent VLDL, the main carrier of triglycerides from the liver to the periphery. Consistent results from cells and rodents indicated that the secretion of triglycerides is reduced in carriers of the p.E167K variant or when hepatic TM6SF2 is deleted. However, data for secretion of APOB, the main protein of VLDL particles responsible for triglycerides transport, are inconsistent. SUMMARY: The identification of genetic variants that are highly associated with human disease presentation should be followed by the validation and investigation into the pathways that regulate disease mechanisms. In this review, we highlight the role of TM6SF2 and its role in processing of liver triglycerides.

Loss of hepatic SMLR1 causes hepatosteatosis and protects against atherosclerosis due to decreased hepatic VLDL secretion.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The assembly and secretion of VLDL from the liver, a pathway that affects hepatic and plasma lipids, remains incompletely understood. We set out to identify players in the VLDL biogenesis pathway by identifying genes that are co-expressed with the MTTP gene that encodes for microsomal triglyceride transfer protein, key to the lipidation of apolipoprotein B, the core protein of VLDL. Using human and murine transcriptomic data sets, we identified small leucine-rich protein 1 ( SMLR1 ), encoding for small leucine-rich protein 1, a protein of unknown function that is exclusively expressed in liver and small intestine. APPROACH AND RESULTS: To assess the role of SMLR1 in the liver, we used somatic CRISPR/CRISPR-associated protein 9 gene editing to silence murine Smlr1 in hepatocytes ( Smlr1 -LKO). When fed a chow diet, male and female mice show hepatic steatosis, reduced plasma apolipoprotein B and triglycerides, and reduced VLDL secretion without affecting microsomal triglyceride transfer protein activity. Immunofluorescence studies show that SMLR1 is in the endoplasmic reticulum and Cis-Golgi complex. The loss of hepatic SMLR1 in female mice protects against diet-induced hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis but causes NASH. On a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet, insulin and glucose tolerance tests did not reveal differences in male Smlr1 -LKO mice versus controls. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a role for SMLR1 in the trafficking of VLDL from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Cis-Golgi complex. While this study uncovers SMLR1 as a player in the VLDL assembly, trafficking, and secretion pathway, it also shows that NASH can occur with undisturbed glucose homeostasis and atheroprotection.

Broadening the Scope of Dyslipidemia Therapy by Targeting APOC3 (Apolipoprotein C3) and ANGPTL3 (Angiopoietin-Like Protein 3).

The positive relationship between increased levels of circulating triglycerides and cardiovascular events has been observed for decades. Driven by genetic cohort studies, inhibitors of APOC3 (apolipoprotein C3) and ANGPTL (angiopoietin-like protein) 3 that reduce circulating triglycerides are poised to enter clinical practice. We will review the biology of how inhibition of these 2 proteins affects circulating lipoproteins as well as the current state of clinical development of monoclonal antibodies, antisense oligonucleotides, and silencing RNAs targeting APOC3 and ANGPTL3.

TCF7L2 transcriptionally regulates Fgf15 to maintain bile acid and lipid homeostasis through gut-liver crosstalk.

FGF19/FGF15 is an endocrine regulator of hepatic bile salt and lipid metabolism, which has shown promising effects in the treatment of NASH in clinical trials. FGF19/15 is transcribed and released from enterocytes of the small intestine into enterohepatic circulation in response to bile-induced FXR activation. Previously, the TSS of FGF19 was identified to bind Wnt-regulated TCF7L2/encoded transcription factor TCF4 in colorectal cancer cells. Impaired Wnt signaling and specifical loss of function of its coreceptor LRP6 have been associated with NASH. We, therefore, examined if TCF7L2/TCF4 upregulates Fgf19 in the small intestine and restrains NASH through gut-liver crosstalk. We examined the mice globally overexpressing, haploinsufficient, and conditional knockout models of TCF7L2 in the intestinal epithelium. The TCF7L2+/- mice exhibited increased plasma bile salts and lipids and developed diet-induced fatty liver disease while mice globally overexpressing TCF7L2 were protected against these traits. Comprehensive in vivo analysis revealed that TCF7L2 transcriptionally upregulates FGF15 in the gut, leading to reduced bile synthesis and diminished intestinal lipid uptake. Accordingly, VilinCreert2 ; Tcf7L2fl/fl mice showed reduced Fgf19 in the ileum, and increased plasma bile. The global overexpression of TCF7L2 in mice with metabolic syndrome-linked LRP6R611C substitution rescued the fatty liver and fibrosis in the latter. Strikingly, the hepatic levels of TCF4 were reduced and CYP7a1 was increased in human NASH, indicating the relevance of TCF4-dependent regulation of bile synthesis to human disease. These studies identify the critical role of TCF4 as an upstream regulator of the FGF15-mediated gut-liver crosstalk that maintains bile and liver triglyceride homeostasis.

Lipoprotein(a): A Genetically Determined, Causal, and Prevalent Risk Factor for Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.

High levels of lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)], an apoB100-containing lipoprotein, are an independent and causal risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases through mechanisms associated with increased atherogenesis, inflammation, and thrombosis. Lp(a) is predominantly a monogenic cardiovascular risk determinant, with ≈70% to ≥90% of interindividual heterogeneity in levels being genetically determined. The 2 major protein components of Lp(a) particles are apoB100 and apolipoprotein(a). Lp(a) remains a risk factor for cardiovascular disease development even in the setting of effective reduction of plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and apoB100. Despite its demonstrated contribution to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease burden, we presently lack standardization and harmonization of assays, universal guidelines for diagnosing and providing risk assessment, and targeted treatments to lower Lp(a). There is a clinical need to understand the genetic and biological basis for variation in Lp(a) levels and its relationship to disease in different ancestry groups. This scientific statement capitalizes on the expertise of a diverse basic science and clinical workgroup to highlight the history, biology, pathophysiology, and emerging clinical evidence in the Lp(a) field. Herein, we address key knowledge gaps and future directions required to mitigate the atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk attributable to elevated Lp(a) levels.

The year in cardiovascular medicine 2021: dyslipidaemia.

The past year was an exciting time for clinical lipidology when we learnt more about existing therapies as well as therapies targeting novel pathways discovered through genetic studies. LDL cholesterol remained the main target and a variety of drugs to lower LDL cholesterol through different mechanisms were explored. Emerging evidence on the atherogenity of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins led to renewed interest in lowering them with new treatments. Lp(a) was back in focus with evidence on causality and new targeted therapeutics which dramatically lower Lp(a) levels. We will be able to personalise lipid lowering therapy further with this enriched armamentarium once we have the results of the cardiovascular outcome studies with some of these new agents.

LDL-C calculated by Friedewald, Martin-Hopkins, or NIH equation 2 versus beta-quantification: pooled alirocumab trials.

Accurate assessment of LDL-C levels is important, as they are often used for treatment recommendations. For many years, plasma LDL-C levels were calculated using the Friedewald equation, but there are limitations to this method compared with direct measurement via beta-quantification (BQ). Here, we assessed differences between the Friedewald, Martin-Hopkins, and NIH equation 2 methods of calculating LDL-C and the "gold standard" BQ method using pooled phase 3 data with alirocumab. All randomized patients were included irrespective of the treatment arm (n = 6,122). We compared pairs of LDL-C values (n = 17,077) determined by each equation and BQ. We found that BQ-derived LDL-C values ranged from 1 to 397 mg/dl (mean 90.68 mg/dl). There were strong correlations between Friedewald-calculated, Martin-Hopkins-calculated, and NIH equation 2-calculated LDL-C with BQ-determined LDL-C values (Pearson's correlation coefficient = 0.985, 0.981, and 0.985, respectively). Importantly, for BQ-derived LDL-C values ≥70 mg/dl, only 3.2%, 1.4%, and 1.8% of Friedewald-calculated, Martin-Hopkins-calculated, and NIH equation 2-calculated values were <70 mg/dl, respectively. When triglyceride (TG) levels were <150 mg/dl, differences between calculated and BQ-derived LDL-C values were minimal, regardless of the LDL-C level (<40, <55, or <70 mg/dl). However, when TG levels were >150 mg/dl, NIH equation 2 provided greater accuracy than Friedewald or Martin-Hopkins. When TGs were >250 mg/dl, inaccuracies were seen with all three methods, although NIH equation 2 remained the most accurate. In conclusion, LDL-C calculated by any of the three methods can guide treatment decisions for most patients, including those treated with proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors.

Hepatocytes Deficient in Nuclear Envelope Protein Lamina-associated Polypeptide 1 are an Ideal Mammalian System to Study Intranuclear Lipid Droplets.

Lipid droplets (LDs) are generally considered to be synthesized in the ER and utilized in the cytoplasm. However, LDs have been observed inside nuclei in some cells, although recent research on nuclear LDs has focused on cultured cell lines. To better understand nuclear LDs that occur in vivo, here we examined LDs in primary hepatocytes from mice following depletion of the nuclear envelope protein lamina-associated polypeptide 1 (LAP1). Microscopic image analysis showed that LAP1-depleted hepatocytes contain frequent nuclear LDs, which differ from cytoplasmic LDs in their associated proteins. We found type 1 nucleoplasmic reticula, which are invaginations of the inner nuclear membrane, are often associated with nuclear LDs in these hepatocytes. Furthermore, in vivo depletion of the nuclear envelope proteins lamin A and C from mouse hepatocytes led to severely abnormal nuclear morphology, but significantly fewer nuclear LDs than were observed upon depletion of LAP1. In addition, we show both high-fat diet feeding and fasting of mice increased cytoplasmic lipids in LAP1-depleted hepatocytes but reduced nuclear LDs, demonstrating a relationship of LD formation with nutritional state. Finally, depletion of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein did not change the frequency of nuclear LDs in LAP1-depleted hepatocytes, suggesting that it is not required for the biogenesis of nuclear LDs in these cells. Together, these data show that LAP1-depleted hepatocytes represent an ideal mammalian system to investigate the biogenesis of nuclear LDs and their partitioning between the nucleus and cytoplasm in response to changes in nutritional state and cellular metabolism in vivo.

Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and their remnants: metabolic insights, role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, and emerging therapeutic strategies-a consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society.

Recent advances in human genetics, together with a large body of epidemiologic, preclinical, and clinical trial results, provide strong support for a causal association between triglycerides (TG), TG-rich lipoproteins (TRL), and TRL remnants, and increased risk of myocardial infarction, ischaemic stroke, and aortic valve stenosis. These data also indicate that TRL and their remnants may contribute significantly to residual cardiovascular risk in patients on optimized low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-lowering therapy. This statement critically appraises current understanding of the structure, function, and metabolism of TRL, and their pathophysiological role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Key points are (i) a working definition of normo- and hypertriglyceridaemic states and their relation to risk of ASCVD, (ii) a conceptual framework for the generation of remnants due to dysregulation of TRL production, lipolysis, and remodelling, as well as clearance of remnant lipoproteins from the circulation, (iii) the pleiotropic proatherogenic actions of TRL and remnants at the arterial wall, (iv) challenges in defining, quantitating, and assessing the atherogenic properties of remnant particles, and (v) exploration of the relative atherogenicity of TRL and remnants compared to LDL. Assessment of these issues provides a foundation for evaluating approaches to effectively reduce levels of TRL and remnants by targeting either production, lipolysis, or hepatic clearance, or a combination of these mechanisms. This consensus statement updates current understanding in an integrated manner, thereby providing a platform for new therapeutic paradigms targeting TRL and their remnants, with the aim of reducing the risk of ASCVD.

Nonalcohol fatty liver disease: balancing supply and utilization of triglycerides.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is defined as the abnormal accumulation of lipids in the liver, called hepatic steatosis, which occurs most often as a concomitant of the metabolic syndrome. Its incidence has surged significantly in recent decades concomitant with the obesity pandemic and increasing consumption of refined carbohydrates and saturated fats. This makes a review of the origins of NAFLD timely and relevant. RECENT FINDINGS: This disorder, which shares histologic markers found in alcoholic fatty liver disease, was named NAFLD to distinguish it from the latter. Recently, however, the term metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) has been suggested as a refinement of NAFLD that should highlight the central, etiologic role of insulin resistance, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. The complexity of the pathways involved in the regulation of hepatic triglyceride synthesis and utilization have become obvious over the past 10 years, including the recent identification of monogenic causes of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease. These include PNPLA3, transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2, GCKR, membrane-bound O-acyltransferase 7 suggest targets for new therapies for hepatic steatosis. SUMMARY: The current review can serve as a guide to the complex pathways involved in the maintenance of hepatic triglyceride levels as well as an introduction to the most recent discoveries, including those of key genes that have provided opportunities for new and novel therapeutics.

Patients With High Genome-Wide Polygenic Risk Scores for Coronary Artery Disease May Receive Greater Clinical Benefit From Alirocumab Treatment in the ODYSSEY OUTCOMES Trial.

BACKGROUND: Alirocumab, an antibody that blocks PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9), was associated with reduced major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and death in the ODYSSEY OUTCOMES trial (Evaluation of Cardiovascular Outcomes After an Acute Coronary Syndrome During Treatment With Alirocumab). In this study, higher baseline levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) predicted greater benefit from alirocumab treatment. Recent studies indicate high polygenic risk scores (PRS) for coronary artery disease (CAD) identify individuals at higher risk who derive increased benefit from statins. We performed post hoc analyses to determine whether high PRS for CAD identifies higher-risk individuals, independent of baseline LDL-C and other known risk factors, who might derive greater benefit from alirocumab treatment. METHODS: ODYSSEY OUTCOMES was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial comparing alirocumab or placebo in 18 924 patients with acute coronary syndrome and elevated atherogenic lipoproteins despite optimized statin treatment. The primary endpoint (MACE) comprised death of CAD, nonfatal myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, or unstable angina requiring hospitalization. A genome-wide PRS for CAD comprising 6 579 025 genetic variants was evaluated in 11 953 patients with available DNA samples. Analysis of MACE risk was performed in placebo-treated patients, whereas treatment benefit analysis was performed in all patients. RESULTS: The incidence of MACE in the placebo group was related to PRS for CAD: 17.0% for high PRS patients (>90th percentile) and 11.4% for lower PRS patients (≤90th percentile; P<0.001); this PRS relationship was not explained by baseline LDL-C or other established risk factors. Both the absolute and relative reduction of MACE by alirocumab compared with placebo was greater in high versus low PRS patients. There was an absolute reduction by alirocumab in high versus low PRS groups of 6.0% and 1.5%, respectively, and a relative risk reduction by alirocumab of 37% in the high PRS group (hazard ratio, 0.63 [95% CI, 0.46-0.86]; P=0.004) versus a 13% reduction in the low PRS group (hazard ratio, 0.87 [95% CI, 0.78-0.98]; P=0.022; interaction P=0.04). CONCLUSIONS: A high PRS for CAD is associated with elevated risk for recurrent MACE after acute coronary syndrome and a larger absolute and relative risk reduction with alirocumab treatment, providing an independent tool for risk stratification and precision medicine.

Apabetalone and hospitalization for heart failure in patients following an acute coronary syndrome: a prespecified analysis of the BETonMACE study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with diabetes and acute coronary syndrome (ACS) are at high risk for subsequent heart failure. Apabetalone is a selective inhibitor of bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) proteins, epigenetic regulators of gene expression. Preclinical data suggest that apabetalone exerts favorable effects on pathways related to myocardial structure and function and therefore could impact subsequent heart failure events. The effect of apabetalone on heart failure events after an ACS is not currently known. METHODS: The phase 3 BETonMACE trial was a double-blind, randomized comparison of apabetalone versus placebo on the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) in 2425 patients with a recent ACS and diabetes. This prespecified secondary analysis investigated the impact of apabetalone on hospitalization for congestive heart failure, not previously studied. RESULTS: Patients (age 62 years, 74.4% males, 90% high-intensity statin use, LDL-C 70.3 mg/dL, HDL-C 33.3 mg/dL and HbA1c 7.3%) were followed for an average 26 months. Apabetalone treated patients experienced the nominal finding of a lower rate of first hospitalization for heart failure (2.4% vs. 4.0%, HR 0.59 [95%CI 0.38-0.94], P = 0.03), total number of hospitalizations for heart failure (35 vs. 70, HR 0.47 [95%CI 0.27-0.83], P = 0.01) and the combination of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for heart failure (5.7% vs. 7.8%, HR 0.72 [95%CI 0.53-0.98], P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Apabetalone treatment was associated with fewer hospitalizations for heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes and recent ACS. Future studies are warranted to define the potential for BET inhibition with apabetalone to prevent heart failure in patients with diabetes and ACS.

Relation of insulin treatment for type 2 diabetes to the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events after acute coronary syndrome: an analysis of the BETonMACE randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: In stable patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), insulin treatment is associated with elevated risk for major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). Patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and T2D are at particularly high risk for recurrent MACE despite evidence-based therapies. It is uncertain to what extent this risk is further magnified in patients with recent ACS who are treated with insulin. We examined the relationship of insulin use to risk of MACE and modification of that risk by apabetalone, a bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) protein inhibitor. METHODS: The analysis utilized data from the BETonMACE phase 3 trial that compared apabetalone to placebo in patients with T2D, low HDL cholesterol, andACS. The primary MACE outcome (cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or stroke) was examined according to insulin treatment and assigned study treatment. Multivariable Cox regression was used to determine whether insulin use was independently associated with the risk of MACE. RESULTS: Among 2418 patients followed for median 26.5 months, 829 (34.2%) were treated with insulin. Despite high utilization of evidence-based treatments including coronary revascularization, intensive statin treatment, and dual antiplatelet therapy, the 3-year incidence of MACE in the placebo group was elevated among insulin-treated patients (20.4%) compared to those not-treated with insulin (12.8%, P = 0.0001). Insulin treatment remained strongly associated with the risk of MACE (HR 2.10, 95% CI 1.42-3.10, P = 0.0002) after adjustment for demographic, clinical, and treatment variables. Apabetalone had a consistent, favorable effect on MACE in insulin-treated and not insulin-treated patients. CONCLUSION: Insulin-treated patients with T2D, low HDL cholesterol, and ACS are at high risk for recurrent MACE despite the use of evidence-based, contemporary therapies. A strong association of insulin treatment with risk of MACE persists after adjustment for other characteristics associated with MACE. There is unmet need for additional treatments to mitigate this risk. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02586155, registered October 26, 2015.

Potential contribution of haemoconcentration to changes in lipid variables with empagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes: A post hoc analysis of pooled data from four phase 3 randomized clinical trials.

AIM: To examine the association between changes in lipids and markers of haemoconcentration (haematocrit and serum albumin) with empagliflozin, a sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitor, in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) using pooled data from four phase 3 randomized trials. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients with T2D received placebo (n = 825), empagliflozin 10 mg (n = 830) or 25 mg (n = 822) for 24 weeks. In post hoc mediation analyses, we assessed total changes in LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein (Apo) B, and Apo A-I, and changes in these variables associated with, and independent of, changes in haematocrit and serum albumin at week 24 using ANCOVA models. RESULTS: Empagliflozin versus placebo increased serum LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, and Apo A-I, decreased triglycerides (empagliflozin 10 mg only), and (non-significantly) increased Apo B. Empagliflozin modestly increased haematocrit and serum albumin. In mediation analyses, haematocrit changes (increases) with empagliflozin were associated with significant changes (increases) in all lipid variables, including Apo B. Except for triglycerides (non-significant), similar lipid variable associations were observed with serum albumin changes. Haematocrit- and serum albumin-independent changes in lipids with empagliflozin were significant for HDL-cholesterol (increases), mostly significant for triglycerides (decreases), and less so for other lipid fractions. CONCLUSION: Haematocrit and serum albumin increases were associated with increases in lipid fractions with empagliflozin. Empagliflozin-associated changes in serum lipids, particularly LDL-cholesterol increases, may be partly attributable to haemoconcentration resulting from increased urinary volume and subsequent volume contraction.

Clinical review on triglycerides.

Hypertriglyceridaemia is a common clinical problem. Epidemiologic and genetic studies have established that triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) and their remnants as important contributors to ASCVD while severe hypertriglyceridaemia raises risk of pancreatitis. While low-density lipoprotein is the primary treatment target for lipid lowering therapy, secondary targets that reflect the contribution of TRL such as apoB and non-HDL-C are recommended in the current guidelines. Reduction of severely elevated triglycerides is important to avert or reduce the risk of pancreatitis. Here we discuss interventions for hypertriglyceridaemia, including diet and lifestyle, established treatments such as fibrates and omega-3 fatty acid preparations and emerging therapies, including various biological agents.

Engineering liver microtissues for disease modeling and regenerative medicine.

The burden of liver diseases is increasing worldwide, accounting for two million deaths annually. In the past decade, tremendous progress has been made in the basic and translational research of liver tissue engineering. Liver microtissues are small, three-dimensional hepatocyte cultures that recapitulate liver physiology and have been used in biomedical research and regenerative medicine. This review summarizes recent advances, challenges, and future directions in liver microtissue research. Cellular engineering approaches are used to sustain primary hepatocytes or produce hepatocytes derived from pluripotent stem cells and other adult tissues. Three-dimensional microtissues are generated by scaffold-free assembly or scaffold-assisted methods such as macroencapsulation, droplet microfluidics, and bioprinting. Optimization of the hepatic microenvironment entails incorporating the appropriate cell composition for enhanced cell-cell interactions and niche-specific signals, and creating scaffolds with desired chemical, mechanical and physical properties. Perfusion-based culture systems such as bioreactors and microfluidic systems are used to achieve efficient exchange of nutrients and soluble factors. Taken together, systematic optimization of liver microtissues is a multidisciplinary effort focused on creating liver cultures and on-chip models with greater structural complexity and physiological relevance for use in liver disease research, therapeutic development, and regenerative medicine.