Effects of out-of-school physical activity interventions based on self-determination theory in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the effects of out-of-school physical activity (PA) interventions, based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), on basic psychological needs (BPN), motivation toward PA, and PA levels in youths. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analyses. METHOD: We searched for intervention studies examining the effects of PA interventions based on SDT implemented outside the school published in English and Spanish in six electronic databases up to January 2022. RESULTS: Outcomes of interest were BPN, motivation, and PA levels. In total, nine studies were included in this review. Seven individual meta-analyses were conducted for each variable, revealing nonsignificant clustered effects for the outcomes autonomy satisfaction (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.31, 0.55]), competence satisfaction (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.28, 0.32]), relatedness satisfaction (g = 0.13, 95% CI [-0.43, 0.68]), autonomous motivation (g = 0.15, 95% CI [-0.38, 0.67]), controlled motivation (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.32, 0.55]), amotivation (g = -0.36, 95% CI [-0.88, 0.16]), and PA behavior (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.08, 0.12]). CONCLUSION: Meta-analyses suggest that out-of-school PA interventions based on SDT are not effective in increasing levels of needs satisfaction, types of motivation, and PA levels.

Perceived coach-created and peer-created motivational climates and their associations with team cohesion and athlete satisfaction: evidence from a longitudinal study.

In this longitudinal study, we examined the extent to which perceived coach- and peer-created motivational climates are associated with athlete-group cohesion and satisfaction with participation among Spanish soccer players competing in the Third National Division. Multilevel modelling analyses showed that perceived coach-created task climate was positively related to perceived cohesion and players' satisfaction with their participation within their team. Also, perceived peer-created task climate related positively to perceived cohesion. The results indicate the importance of considering peer-related aspects of the motivational climate in addition to considering the coach-related aspects of the motivational climate when examining motivational group dynamics in sport.

The relationship among intra-group communication, transactive memory systems, collective efficacy and team performance: A structural equation model analysis with Elite Footballers.

We explored the relationship among intra-group communication, collective efficacy, transactive memory systems and team performance. One hundred and seventy soccer players, aged between 14 and 38 years (M = 18.35, SD = 4.71), from eight national teams participated in this study. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. First, our analysis revealed that intra-group communication was positively related to transactive memory systems. Second, transactive memory systems was positively associated with collective efficacy and team performance. Third, our analysis revealed that collective efficacy mediated the relationship between transactive memory systems and performance. Altogether, our findings advance the literature by highlighting the relationship among intra-group communication, collective efficacy, transactive memory systems and team performance team processes. From an applied perspective, our findings suggest that systemic interventions simultaneously targeting various team constructs are important to enhance team functioning.Highlights The relationship among intra-group communication, collective efficacy, transactive memory systems and team performance were examined in national football teams.A cross-sectional design was developed and the data were analyzed using structural equation modeling.Players perceptions of high intra-group communication were positively associated with the development of transactive memory systems.Higher levels of transactive memory systems and collective efficacy were associated with better team performance.

A Multiday Professional Padel Tournament Impairs Sleep, Mental Toughness, and Reaction Time: A World Padel Tour Field Study.

This study aimed to assess, for the first time, how self-reported sleep, mental toughness, and reaction time are impacted by a professional padel tournament. In addition, we evaluated whether sex, age, and/or ranking play a role in this possible effect of a tournament on these variables. Twenty-three professional players (15 men, Mage = 24 ± 6 years; eight women, Mage = 21 ± 5 years) were evaluated on two occasions: (a) baseline, in a noncompetitive week and (b) postmeasure, the morning after an individual was eliminated from the tournament. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, the Mental Toughness Questionnaire, and the psychomotor vigilance task were used to evaluate the dependent variables. Wilcoxon tests or paired samples t tests were employed to assess the effect of participating in the tournament. To test correlations between variables, Pearson correlation coefficients (quantitative variables) or chi-square distributions (qualitative variables) were employed. Results showed that self-reported sleep (p < .01), mental toughness (p = .01), and reaction time (p = .04) were significantly impaired by the tournament. Exploring moderating variables, results showed that mental toughness did not correlate with sleep impairments (p > .05). In contrast, a nearly significant correlation between sleep impairments and higher reaction times was found (p = .066). No significant effects of age, sex, and ranking were observed. In conclusion, participating in a padel competition impairs the self-reported sleep, mental toughness, and reaction time of professional padel players. A trend toward a significant correlation between the competition-related impairment in sleep and reaction time was observed, whereas age, ranking, and sex were not found to be moderators of any of these impairments.

Effects of the inclusion of physical activity in secondary education academic classes on educational indicators and health markers: rationale and methods of the ACTIVE CLASS study.

Background: Increasing physical activity (PA) levels and reducing sedentary behaviors in children and adolescents is a need, especially in schools. Active breaks and physically active learning are examples of two emerging methodologies that have been shown to be effective in increasing PA levels and additionally produce improvements in children's educational markers. However, the evidence in adolescents is very limited. This paper presents the design, measurements, and interventions implemented in the ACTIVE CLASS study, whose objectives are: (i) evaluate the effects of two interventions on PA levels, sedentary time, health-related physical fitness academic indicators, cognition, and markers of psychological health among secondary education students; (ii) evaluate teachers' and students' experiences about the implementation of these the two school-based PA intervention. Methods: A randomized controlled study is conducted with a total of 292 students aged 12-14 years old from six schools (7th and 8th grade) in Spain (three in Cadiz and three in Caceres). One school from each study provinces is randomly assigned to either the active break intervention group, the physically active learning intervention group, or the control group. The interventions have a duration of 16 weeks. Nine main measurement categories are assessed: PA and sedentary time, health-related physical fitness, academic indicators, cognition, psychological health, motivational variables, dietary patterns, sociodemographic characteristics, as well as qualitative information through semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups. Three independent measurements of evaluation are distinguished: pre-intervention, post-intervention (week 16) and retention measurement (4 weeks after the intervention). For quantitative variables, descriptive, correlational, regression and repeated measures ANOVA will be applied. Discussion: To the best of our knowledge, the ACTIVE CLASS study is the first of its kind in Spain to evaluate the effects of incorporating active breaks and physically active learning in secondary education. In addition, this project provides important information on the effects of two school-based PA intervention arms on educational variables and health markers in adolescents. This will provide valuable and innovative training to the educational community, enabling them to implement teaching methodologies that have the potential to enhance academic performance and improve the quality of life for their students. Clinical trial registration: clinicaltrials.gov, NCT05891054.

Using the Conceptual Framework for Examining Sport Teams to Understand Group Dynamics in Professional Soccer.

(1) Background: The aim of this study is to propose a model of the interactions of group dynamics using the conceptual framework to examine sports teams; (2) Methods: The hypothesized model includes measures of group structure (authentic leadership, perceived justice, coaching competency, role clarity/ambiguity, and role conflict), group cohesion (cohesion and team conflict), and group processes (collective efficacy and transactive memory systems). Participants were 581 professional soccer players (M = 24.51, SD = 3.73; 356 males and 225 females) who completed a multisection questionnaire assessing group dynamics variables; (3) Results: The results show that coach leadership predicts coaching competency and perceived justice, and both competency and justice predict role ambiguity and role conflict. Furthermore, role ambiguity and role conflict predict group cohesion and team conflict, whereas group cohesion and team conflict both predict the transactive memory system. Finally, collective efficacy is predicted by the transactive memory system; (4) Conclusions: The results suggest the importance of coach behavior (leadership, justice, and competency) and group processes to improving team functioning in a professional sports context.

Are Teams Whose Players Are More Committed To the Team More Resilient? the Role of Intra-Group Conflict.

The study aimed to analyze the relationship between commitment to the team and team resilience factors (characteristics of resilience and vulnerability under pressure), and to examine whether the task and social intra-group conflict act as mediators between commitment to the team and team resilience factors. One hundred seventy (170) male soccer players (16-38 years; M = 18.35; SD = 4.72) of the national teams of Argentina, Costa Rica, and Mexico participated in the study. The path analytic model was used to test mediating pathways. First, the results revealed that commitment to the team was positively related to characteristics of resilience and negatively to vulnerability under pressure. Second, bootstrap mediation analysis showed that athletes' perceptions of the task and social intra-group conflict mediated the association between their perception of commitment to the team and team resilience factors. Findings provide initial evidence for a link between commitment to the team and team resilience in national teams and also suggest that intra-group conflict can improve the association between commitment to the team and team resilience. Therefore, the main conclusion of this study is that practioners should promote players' commitment to the team and avoid intra-group conflicts within teams to have a resilient team that copes with problems more easily.

How Mentally Fatiguing Are Consecutive World Padel Tour Matches?

It is currently unknown whether mental fatigue occurs throughout a WPT competition and whether consecutive matches affect how mentally fatiguing a match is perceived to be. The objective was to quantify the effects of successive professional matches on mental fatigue. A total of 14 professional players (9 males, Mage = 25, 5 females, Mage = 21) participated during qualified rounds of a WPT with three eliminatory matches: Match 1 (morning) and 2 (afternoon) on day 1 (n = 14), Match 3 (morning) on day 2 (n = 6). Mental fatigue and motivation, with scales, and reaction time, with a 3-min Psychomotor Vigilance Test, were measured at two time intervals (pre and post matches (<30 min)). To analyze the evolution of these variables, a two-way repeated measures MANOVA was performed. An increase in mental fatigue from pre- to post-matches was observed (p < 0.01), with an accumulation of mental fatigue between matches played on day 1 (p < 0.01), maximizing the mental fatigue perceived during Match 2. Padel matches impair motivation and reaction time (p = 0.04), without effects between successive matches, which reinforced the idea that mental fatigue may impair padel performance (i.e., reaction time). Coaches should use training interventions and recovery strategies to counteract/avoid the accumulation of mental fatigue during professional tournaments.

Mental Load and Fatigue Assessment Instruments: A Systematic Review.

Mental load and fatigue are important causes of performance decreases and accidents in different activities. However, a robust systematic review, detailing the instruments used to quantify them, is currently lacking. The purpose of this study was to summarize and classify by derivations the validated instruments used to quantify mental load and fatigue. The most representative electronic databases in the scope of this review, PubMed, WOS, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO (until September 2020) were searched for studies that included instruments to analyze mental load and fatigue. The quality of the selected studies was scored using a quality assessment checklist. A total of 40 papers were included. Most of the papers used subjective scales (75%) to quantify mental load and fatigue, with a small presence of behavioral (n = 5) and objective techniques (n = 5). Less is known about the analysis of mental load and fatigue using a combination of derivations. Despite the high cost and complexity of objective techniques, research that applies these measures is important for further analysis of brain processes in mental load and fatigue. The design of a battery of tests that include the three types of derivations also seems necessary.

How many leaders does it take to lead a sports team? The relationship between the number of leaders and the effectiveness of professional sports teams.

This study aimed to analyze the number of task, social and external athlete leaders within sports teams, and to examine the effectiveness of different leadership structures in male and female teams. The participants were 317 male and 214 female soccer players belonging to 18 teams playing in the third highest male division and to 13 teams playing in the highest female division in Spain, respectively. First, we identified the leadership structure in each team (i.e., having zero, one, two or three leaders); second, we grouped the teams according to these leadership structures; and third, MANOVA was used to compare different leadership groups in terms of their effectiveness. The results demonstrated that: (a) the most common structure within the teams was to have one task leader, one social leader, and two external leaders; (b) shared leadership across and within leadership roles was seen as the most effective leadership structure for male and female teams; and (c) male teams showed more benefits when having more task and external leaders, while female teams experienced more benefits when having more task and social leaders on the team. Based on these findings, coaches can optimize their team's functioning by implementing a structure of shared leadership within their teams, both across and within the different leadership roles.

Effects of an intervention with teachers in the physical education context: A Self-Determination Theory approach.

Framed within Self-Determination Theory, the purpose of the present study was to test the effects of a training program with physical education (PE) teachers. Participants were 21 high school PE teachers (experimental group, n = 10; control group, n = 11), and their 836 students, aged 12 to 16 years. Teachers in the experimental group received a training program consisting of strategies to support autonomy, competence, and relatedness need satisfaction. A repeated measures ANCOVA was carried out for each dependent variable. After the intervention, students in the experimental group significantly increased their scores on autonomy support, relatedness support, autonomy satisfaction, autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and intention to be physically active, as compared to the control group. These findings emphasize the utility of a training program with PE teachers to promote the students' psychological need satisfaction, and hence, self-determined motivation toward PE classes.

Diseño y validación del Cuestionario para valorar la Carga Mental en los Deportes de Equipo (CCMDE) / Desenho e validaçao de um Questionário para quantificar a Carga Mental em Equipes Esportivas (QCMEE) / Design and validation of a Questionnaire to quantify the Mental Load in Team Sports (QMLST)

El objetivo del presente estudio fue diseñar y validar un cuestionario para valorar la carga mental en los deportes de equipo. Este cuestionario está formado por cuatro ítems en formato Likert (0-10): exigencia física, cognitiva, emocional y afectiva, y fue diseñado mediante acuerdo entre expertos (n = 10). Un total de 218 jugadores semiprofesionales de fútbol (M= 22.40; DT= 2.25) completaron el cuestionario tras finalizar un entrenamiento. Se analizó la fiabilidad mediante Alfa de Cronbach y coeficiente de Omega. Además, para la validez concurrente se realizó un análisis de correlaciones bivariadas, utilizando la Escala Visual Analógica y laEscala de Percepción del Esfuerzo. Los resultados muestran que este cuestionario presenta una adecuada consistencia interna (α= .73; ω = .75) y validez concurrente (p< .05). Por tanto, es una herramienta válida y fiable que permitirá a los entrenadores y preparadores físicos valorar la carga mental específica en los deportes de equipo. (AU)

The aim of the present study was to design and validate a questionnaire to quantify the mental load in team sports. Four items with Likert scale format (1-10) composed the instrument: physical, cognitive, emotional and affective exigence. A group of expert judges (n = 10) participated in the design. Later, a total of 218 semi-professionals soccer players (M= 22.40; SD= 2.25) answered the questionnaire after a training session. The internal consistency was evaluated with Cronbach ́s α(.73) and ω(.75). The concurrent validity was evaluated with Visual Analogue Scale ́s and Ratio Perceived Exertion ́s bivariate correlations (p< .05). Thus, the present questionnaire is a reliability and adequate instrument for asses the specific mental load in team sports. (AU)

O objetivo do presente estudo foi elaborar e validar um questionário para quantificar a carga mental em esportes coletivos. Quatro itens com formato de escala Likert (1-10) compuseram o instrumento: exigência física, cognitiva, emocional e afetiva. Um grupo de juízes especialistas (n = 10) participou do projeto. Um total de 218 jogadores semiprofissionais de futebol (M = 22,40; DP = 2,25) responderam ao questionário após um treino. A consistência interna foi avaliada com α de Cronbach (0,73) e ω (0,75). A validade concorrente foi avaliada com as correlações bivariadas da Escala Visual Analógica e Razão Percebida do Esforço (p <0,05). Assim, o presente questionário é um instrumento confiável e adequado para avaliar a carga mental específica em esportes coletivos. (AU)

Incidence of Parental Support and Pressure on Their Children's Motivational Processes towards Sport Practice Regarding Gender.

Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, structural equation modeling (SEM) with the aim of examining how parental support/pressure could influence their children´s motivational processes in sport was conducted, as well as the models´ differences in operability regarding gender. The sample size was 321 children ranging in age from 10 to 16 years old who were athletes from Extremadura, and 321 parents (included only the father or mother more involved with the sport of his or her child). 175 participants were male and 146 were female from individual (n = 130), and team sports (n=191). A questionnaire was conducted to assess parental perception of support/pressure and another questionnaire was conducted to measure satisfaction of basic psychological needs, type of motivation and enjoyment/boredom showed by their children towards sport practice. Results revealed that parental pressure negatively predicted satisfaction of the basic psychological needs. It also emerged as a strong positive predictor of intrinsic motivation and negative predictor of amotivation. Moreover, intrinsic motivation emerged as positive predictor of enjoyment and a negative predictor of boredom, whereas amotivation positively predicted boredom and negatively predicted enjoyment. Furthermore, results showed there were mean differences by gender: male athletes perceived greater parental pressure. Hence, it is necessary to decrease parental pressure towards their children in sport, with the aim of making them more motivated and enjoy, promoting positive consequences.

Adaptation and validation in Spanish of the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) with professional football players.

BACKGROUND: This investigation presents two studies with the goal of adapting and validating a short version of the Group Environment Questionnaire in the Spanish sport context with professional players. METHOD: Study 1 used a sample of 377 male soccer players aged between 18 and 39 years ( M = 24.51, SD = 3.73), in a preliminary study using exploratory factor analysis. Study 2 used a sample of 604 professional male and female athletes, ages between 15 and 38 years ( M = 24.34, SD = 4.03). The data analyzed were collected at three moments of the season. For each measurement, we developed seven first- and second-order structures that were analyzed with confirmatory factor analysis. RESULTS: Study 1 indicated appropriate factorial validity (> .60) and internal consistency (> .70), with only Item 3 presenting a low factor loading (.11), so its drafting was modified in the next study. Study 2 revealed that the Spanish version of the GEQ has high levels of internal consistency (> .70) and acceptable fit index values in its original four first-order factor structure in all three measurements ( χ²/df = 4.39, CFI = .95, IFI = .95, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04, AIC = 271.09). Discriminant validity (from r = .45 to r = .72) and concurrent validity (from r = .21 to r = .60) also presented appropriate values. Lastly, we conducted analysis of invariance, confirming that the models established in the different measurements were invariant. CONCLUSIONS: The short 12-item adaptation of the GEQ to Spanish is a valid and reliable instrument to measure team cohesion in professional male and female soccer players.

Validación al español de la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en el Fútbol

El objetivo de la presente investigación era traducir al español y validar la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en Deportes de Equipo (SECTS-2S). Para ello, se realizaron dos estudios. El Estudio 1 contó con 276 jugadores de fútbol de género masculino (88.40%) y femenino (11.60%) con un rango de edad de 16-42 años (M = 18.42; DT = 2.71). Los resultados mostraron una estructura factorial con tres factores de primer orden (aceptación, conflicto negativo y distinción) y con adecuada consistencia interna (α y ώ = .70-.79). En el Estudio 2, participaron 453 jugadores de fútbol de ambos géneros (89.40% masculino y 10.60% femenino) con edades en el rango de 16-39 años (M = 20.86; DT = 3.56). Nuevamente, se obtuvieron índices de ajuste aceptables con una estructura compuesta por tres factores de primer orden y con valores adecuados de consistencia interna para cada factor (α y ώ = .75-.83). Además, se comprobó que la SECTS-2S mostraba una adecuada validez discriminante y nomológica con la variable de cohesión de grupo (p < .05). Por último, se encontró que la escala SECTS-2S es invariante con respecto al nivel competitivo de los jugadores. Se concluye que la SECTS-2S es una herramienta válida y fiable para medir la comunicación intra-equipo en el fútbol.

The aim of this investigation was to translate and validate the Effective Communication Scale in Team Sports into Spanish (SECTS-2S). In Study 1 participated 276 male (88.40 %) and female (11.60%) soccer players, with aged between 16-42 (M = 18.42; SD = 2.71). Results show a three first-order factors structure (acceptance, negative conflict, and distinctiveness) and adequate internal consistency were found. Study 2 involved 453 soccer players of both genders (89.40 % male and 10.60% female) and aged between 16-39 years (M = 20.86; SD = 3.56). Likewise, adequate values in the factorial structure with a three-factor structure and internal consistency were obtained (α and ώ = .75-.83). In addition, the SECTS-2S showed adequate discriminatory and nomological validity with the group cohesion variable (p < .05). Finally, it was shown that the instrument was invariant with respect to the competitive level of players. Thus, the SECTS-2S is a valid and reliable questionnaire to measure intra-team communication in team sports.

Validación al español de la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en el Fútbol / Spanish validation of the Effective Communication Scale in Soccer

Resumen El objetivo de la presente investigación era traducir al español y validar la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en Deportes de Equipo (SECTS-2S). Para ello, se realizaron dos estudios. El Estudio 1 contó con 276 jugadores de fútbol de género masculino (88.40%) y femenino (11.60%) con un rango de edad de 16-42 años (M = 18.42; DT = 2.71). Los resultados mostraron una estructura factorial con tres factores de primer orden (aceptación, conflicto negativo y distinción) y con adecuada consistencia interna (α y ώ = .70-.79). En el Estudio 2, participaron 453 jugadores de fútbol de ambos géneros (89.40% masculino y 10.60% femenino) con edades en el rango de 16-39 años (M = 20.86; DT = 3.56). Nuevamente, se obtuvieron índices de ajuste aceptables con una estructura compuesta por tres factores de primer orden y con valores adecuados de consistencia interna para cada factor (α y ώ = .75-.83). Además, se comprobó que la SECTS-2S mostraba una adecuada validez discriminante y nomológica con la variable de cohesión de grupo (p < .05). Por último, se encontró que la escala SECTS-2S es invariante con respecto al nivel competitivo de los jugadores. Se concluye que la SECTS-2S es una herramienta válida y fiable para medir la comunicación intra-equipo en el fútbol.

Abstract The aim of this investigation was to translate and validate the Effective Communication Scale in Team Sports into Spanish (SECTS-2S). In Study 1 participated 276 male (88.40 %) and female (11.60%) soccer players, with aged between 16-42 (M = 18.42; SD = 2.71). Results show a three first-order factors structure (acceptance, negative conflict, and distinctiveness) and adequate internal consistency were found. Study 2 involved 453 soccer players of both genders (89.40 % male and 10.60% female) and aged between 16-39 years (M = 20.86; SD = 3.56). Likewise, adequate values in the factorial structure with a three-factor structure and internal consistency were obtained (α and ώ = .75-.83). In addition, the SECTS-2S showed adequate discriminatory and nomological validity with the group cohesion variable (p < .05). Finally, it was shown that the instrument was invariant with respect to the competitive level of players. Thus, the SECTS-2S is a valid and reliable questionnaire to measure intra-team communication in team sports.

Incidencia del sistema de puntuación de las tareas sobre la carga mental del entrenamiento en fútbol / Incidence of the tasks scoring system on the mental load in football training / Incidência do sistema de pontuação de tarefas na carga mental de treinamento de futebol

El objetivo de este estudio fue examinar el efecto de la modificación del sistema de puntuación en dos tareas de entrenamiento en fútbol, sobre la carga mental percibida por los deportistas. Asimismo, se analizó la repercusión sobre aspectos condicionales. Los participantes fueron 40 jugadores pertenecientes a 4 equipos de la categoría sub-18 de división de honor, que llevaron a cabo 2 tareas de entrenamiento diferentes, la primera una posesión 5x5 y la segunda un partido 5x5 reducido. Cada tarea se desarrolló en días diferentes, con y sin modificación del sistema de puntuación. Así, para comprobar la percepción de carga mental se utilizó el cuestionario NASA - Task Load Index y la fatiga mental se analizó mediante la escala Visual Analogical Scale. Además, se valoró su percepción de esfuerzo y la carga externa con GPS. Los resultados demostraron que la modificación del sistema de puntuación afectó de manera significativa a la carga y fatiga mental en ambas tareas, incidiendo más en la situación de partido reducido que en la posesión. Además, se pudo comprobar que había diferencias respecto a la carga física realizada, demostrándose que ambas variables, a pesar de estar relacionadas, se comportan de forma diferente. De esta forma, los resultados encontrados permiten una primera aproximación a la importancia de cuantificar y controlar la carga mental en el deporte, teniendo en cuenta que puede incidir de manera diferente a la carga física

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of the modiffcation of the scoring system on two football training tasks, on the mental load perceived by the athletes. Likewise, the repercussion on conditional aspects was analyzed. The participants were 40 soccer players belonging to four teams of the U18 division of honor, who carried out two different training tasks, the first a 5x5 possession and the second a reduced 5x5 match. Each task was developed on different days, with and without modiffcation of the scoring system. "us, to verify the perception of mental load, the NASA - Task Load Index questionnaire was used and mental fatigue was analyzed using Visual Analogical Scale. In addition, their perception of effort and the external load with GPS system were evaluated. The results showed that the modiffication of the scoring system signifficantly affected the load and mental fatigue in both tasks, affecting more in the situation of reduced match than in possession. In addition, it was found that there were differences in relation to the physical load, showing that both variables, although related, affect differently. Therefore, the results obtained allow a first approximation to the importance of quantifying and controlling the mental load in sport, taking into account that it can have a different effect on the physical load

O objetivo deste estudo foi examinar o efeito da modificação do sistema de pontuação em duas tarefas de treinamento de futebol, sobre a carga mental percebida pelos atletas. Da mesma forma, o impacto nos aspectos condicionais foi analisado. Os participantes foram 40 jogadores pertencentes a 4 equipes da divisão de honra da divisão U18, que realizaram duas tarefas de treinamento diferentes, a primeira com uma posse de 5x5 e a segunda com uma partida reduzida de 5x5. Cada tarefa foi desenvolvida em dias diferentes, com e sem modificação do sistema de pontuação. Assim, para verificar a percepção da carga mental, utilizou-se o questionário NASA - Task Load Index e a fadiga mental foi analisada pela escala visual Analogical Scale. Além disso, sua percepção de esforço e a carga externa com o GPS foram avaliadas. Os resultados mostraram que a modificação do sistema de pontuação afetou significativamente a carga e a fadiga mental em ambas as tarefas, com maior ênfase na situação de parte reduzida do que em posse. Além disso, foi possível verificar que houve diferenças em relação à carga física realizada, demonstrando que ambas as variáveis, apesar de relacionadas, afetam diferentemente. Desta forma, os resultados obtidos permitem uma primeira aproximação à importância de quantificar e controlar a carga mental no esporte, levando em consideração que ela pode afetar a carga física de maneira diferente

Validación al castellano de la escala sobre competencia del entrenador / Validação em castelhano da escala sobre competência do treinador / Validation into Spanish of the athletes’ perceptions of coaching competency scale

El objetivo del estudio fue realizar una validación al castellano de la escala desarrollada por Myers, Chase, Beauchamp, y Jackson (2010) sobre la competencia del entrenador (Athletes’ Perceptions of Coaching Competency Scale II-High School Teams: APCCS II-HST). La muestra del estudio estuvo formada por 581 jugadores, de los cuales 356 jugadores eran de género masculino y 225 de género femenino, con edades comprendidas entre los 18 y los 39 años (M = 24.51; DT = 3.73). Tras analizar diferentes modelos de medida, los resultados indican que la estructura Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) de primer orden es la que mejor se ajusta a los datos, mostrando además correlaciones entre factores más bajas. Además, la escala mostró una adecuada consistencia interna y validez concurrente a través de las relaciones con la satisfacción con el entrenador, y se mostró invariante para jugadores de ambos géneros. De esta manera, los entrenadores y psicólogos deportivos podrían utilizar esta escala para medir cada una de las dimensiones del instrumento de competencia del entrenador en deportistas de alto rendimiento (AU)

The aim of the study was to develop a validation into Spanish of the of the scale carried out by Myers, Chase, Beauchamp, and Jackson (2010) about coach’ competence (Athletes’ Perceptions of Coaching Competency Scale II-High School Teams: APCCS II-HST). The sample was formed by 581 players, whom 356 athletes were male and 225 individuals were female, ranging in age from 18 to 39 years old (M = 24.51; SD = 3.73). After analyzing different measurement models, the results indicate that Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) structure the first-order is the best fit for the data, showing correlations lower between factors. In addition, the scale showed adequate internal consistency and concurrent validity through relationships with coach satisfaction, and was shown to be invariant for players of both genders. Thus, coaches and sport psychologists might use this scale to measure each of the instruments’ dimensions of coaching competency in high performance athletes (AU)

O objectivo do estudo foi realizar uma validação à língua castelhana da escala desenvolvida por Myers, Chase, Beauchamp, & Jackson (2010) sobre a competência do treinador (Athletes´ Perceptions of Coaching Competency Scale IIHigh School Teams: APCCS II-HST). A amostra do estudo foi formada por 581 jogadores, dos quais 356 jogadores eram do género masculino e 225 do género feminino, com idades compreendidas entre os 18 e os 39 anos (M = 24.51; DP = 3.73). Depois de analizar os diferentes modelos de medida, os resultados indicam que a estrutura Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) de primeira ordem é a que melhor se ajusta aos dados, mostrando ainda correlações entre factores mais baixas. A escala mostrou ainda uma adequada consistência interna e validade simultaneamente através das relações de satisfação com o treinador e invariável para os jogadores de ambos os sexos. Desta maneira os treinadores e psicólogos desportivos poderiam utilizar esta escala para medir cada uma das dimensões do instrumento de competência de treinador em desportistas de alto nível (AU)

Frustración de las necesidades psicológicas, motivación y burnout en entrenadores: incidencia de la formación / Thwarting of need frustration, motivation and Burnout in coaches: incidence of teaching / Frustraçao das necessidades psicológicas, motivaçao e Burnout em treinadores: incidencia da formaçao

El objetivo del estudio era analizar la incidencia de la formación (federativa y académica general) de los entrenadores sobre variables psicológicas motivacionales (frustración de las necesidades psicológicas básicas (NPB), autodeterminación), eficacia profesional y agotamiento emocional. Para ello, participaron 147 entrenadores de 26 deportes diferentes en categorías de iniciación. Los resultados demostraron que los entrenadores con titulación deportiva intermedia tenían una motivación más intrínseca que los no cualificados, mientras que los entrenadores con mayor titulación se sentían más eficaces y más agotados. Asimismo, los entrenadores con mayor titulación académica general obtuvieron menores niveles de frustración en las NPB de competencia y relaciones sociales. Por tanto, la cualificación de los entrenadores determina los niveles de frustración de las NPB, el grado de motivación y dos dimensiones del burnout, la eficacia profesional y el agotamiento emocional

The aim of this study was to examine coaches' training (federative and general academic) incidence on motivational psychological variables (frustration of the basic psychological needs (BPN), self-determination, professional efficacy and emotional burnout). Thus, 147 coaches belonged to 26 different sports in training categories participated in the study. Results showed that coaches with medium sport qualification had a greater intrinsic motivation than those who were not qualified, whereas coaches with higher qualification showed more efficacy and burnout. Moreover, coaches with greater general academic degree had low levels of frustration in the BPN of competence and relatedness. Therefore, coaches’ qualification determine their frustration of the BPN, level of motivation and two burnout dimensions, professional efficacy and emotional burnout

O objectivo deste estudo foi analisar a incidência da formação de treinadores (federativa e académica geral) nas variáveis psicológicas motivacionais (frustração das necessidades psicológicas básicas (NPB), autodeterminação, eficácia profissional e burnout emocional). Assim, participaram no estudo 147 treinadores dos escalões de formação de 26 modalidades desportivas diferentes. Os resultados mostraram que os treinadores com qualificação desportiva média tinham maior motivação intrínseca do que aqueles que não eram qualificados, enquanto os treinadores com maior qualificação apresentaram maior eficácia e burnout. Adicionalmente, treinadores com maior grau académico geral tinham baixos níveis de frustração das NPB de competência e relação. Como tal, a qualificação dos treinadores determina a frustração das suas NPB, o nível de motivação e duas dimensões de burnout, eficácia profissional e burnout emocional

Adaptation and validation in Spanish of the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) with professional football players / Adaptación y validación al español del Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) con jugadores profesionales de fútbol

BACKGROUND: This investigation presents two studies with the goal of adapting and validating a short version of the Group Environment Questionnaire in the Spanish sport context with professional players. METHOD: Study 1 used a sample of 377 male soccer players aged between 18 and 39 years (M = 24.51, SD = 3.73), in a preliminary study using exploratory factor analysis. Study 2 used a sample of 604 professional male and female athletes, ages between 15 and 38 years (M = 24.34, SD = 4.03). The data analyzed were collected at three moments of the season. For each measurement, we developed seven first- and second-order structures that were analyzed with confirmatory factor analysis. RESULTS: Study 1 indicated appropriate factorial validity (> .60) and internal consistency (> .70), with only Item 3 presenting a low factor loading (.11), so its drafting was modified in the next study. Study 2 revealed that the Spanish version of the GEQ has high levels of internal consistency (> .70) and acceptable fi t index values in its original four first-order factor structure in all three measurements (χ2 /df = 4.39, CFI = .95, IFI = .95, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04, AIC = 271.09). Discriminant validity (from r = .45 to r = .72) and concurrent validity (from r = .21 to r = .60) also presented appropriate values. Lastly, we conducted analysis of invariance, confirming that the models established in the different measurements were invariant. CONCLUSIONS: The short 12-item adaptation of the GEQ to Spanish is a valid and reliable instrument to measure team cohesion in professional male and female soccer players

ANTECEDENTES: esta investigación presenta dos estudios cuyo objetivo era adaptar y validar al contexto deportivo español una versión corta del Group Environment Questionnaire con jugadores profesionales. MÉTODO: el Estudio 1 contó con 377 jugadores de fútbol de género masculino con edades entre 18 y 39 años (M = 24.51; DT = 3.73), con los que se realizó un estudio preliminar mediante un análisis factorial exploratorio. El Estudio 2 contó con 604 deportistas masculinos y femeninos profesionales con edades entre 15 y 38 años (M = 24.34; DT = 4.03). Los datos analizados fueron recogidos en tres momentos de la temporada. Se desarrollaron siete estructuras de primer y segundo orden que fueron sometidas a un análisis factorial confirmatorio. RESULTADOS: el Estudio 1 indica una validez factorial (>.60) y consistencia interna adecuada (>.70) del instrumento, donde únicamente el ítem 3 presentó una saturación baja (.11) y se modificó su redacción para el estudio 2. El Estudio 2 revela que la versión española del GEQ demuestra alta consistencia interna (>.70) e índices aceptables en su estructura factorial original con cuatro factores de primer orden en las tres medidas (χ2 /df = 4.39; CFI = .95; IFI = .95; RMSEA = .07; SRMR = .04; AIC = 271.09). Además, la validez discriminante (desde r = .45 a r = .72) y concurrente (desde r = .21 a r = .60) demostraron valores adecuados. Finalmente se realizó un análisis de la invarianza que demostró que los modelos eran invariantes en las diferentes medidas. CONCLUSIONES: la adaptación corta de 12 ítems del GEQ al español es un instrumento válido y fiable para medir la cohesión de equipo en jugadores y jugadoras profesionales de fútbol