Are mobile apps meeting the needs of caregivers of people living with dementia? An evaluation of existing apps for caregivers.

OBJECTIVES: Informal caregivers of people living with dementia (ICPDs) experience stressors that can lead to adverse outcomes. Although apps for ICPDs are available, evidence to support their effectiveness is limited. This investigation was aimed at providing an evaluation of available apps for ICPDs. METHODS: We conducted two studies: 1) search and evaluation of available apps; and 2) controlled trial of two apps identified in the Study 1 (NCT05217004). For Study 2, participants were randomly assigned to one of the two app-using groups or a control group. Outcome measures were administered before, post-intervention, and at a follow-up. Interviews with caregivers were conducted to examine their needs regarding the development of future apps. RESULTS: Sixteen apps were examined in Study 1. Results suggest that the number and type of features present in each app may not be sufficient to address the multifaceted needs of ICPDs. In Study 2, contrary to expectation, we did not identify differences between the app-using and control conditions on our outcome measures. Participants noted several content and user-experience needs to consider in developing new apps. CONCLUSION: Findings from the investigation can inform future developments of apps to address the needs of ICPDs.

Theoretical framework of concerns about falling in older people: the role of health literacy.

Adherence and participation can be improved in health programs for older people with concerns about falling. While health literacy empowers older people to have greater control over their health, little is known about the extent to which health literacy influences health behaviours associated with concerns about falling in older people. This study aimed to synthesise current findings on health literacy, concerns about falling and falls to propose a multicomponent theoretical model on health literacy and concerns about falling. The model was developed based on a review of the literature, existing frameworks and models on health literacy and concerns about falling. Existing evidence on the relationship between health literacy and concerns about falling in older people is limited. Evidence from other research areas, however, shows that health literacy is closely related to many of the determinants of concerns about falling. More research is needed to clarify the impact of health literacy on intervention adherence and decision-making processes of older people with concerns about falling. Our model offers a novel perspective on the role of health literacy in health behaviours associated with concerns about falling, suggesting new research directions and providing insights for clinicians to consider health literacy when managing older patients with concerns about falling.

Development, evaluation, and implementation of an online pain assessment training program for staff in rural long-term care facilities: a case series approach.

BACKGROUND: Pain among long-term care (LTC) residents, and especially residents with dementia, is often underassessed and this underassessment has been attributed, in part, to gaps in front-line staff education. Furthermore, although evidence-based clinical guidelines for pain assessment in LTC are available, pain assessment protocols are often inconsistently implemented and, when they are implemented, it is usually within urban LTC facilities located in large metropolitan centers. Implementation science methodologies are needed so that changes in pain assessment practices can be integrated in rural facilities. Thus, our purpose was to evaluate an online pain assessment training program and implement a standardized pain assessment protocol in rural LTC environments. METHODS: During the baseline and implementation periods, we obtained facility-wide pain-related quality indicators from seven rural LTC homes. Prior to implementing the protocol, front-line staff completed the online training program. Front-line staff also completed a set of self-report questionnaires and semi-structured interviews prior to and following completion of the online training program. RESULTS: Results indicated that knowledge about pain assessment significantly increased following completion of the online training program. Implementation of the standardized protocol resulted in more frequent pain assessments on admission and on a weekly basis, although improvements in the timeliness of follow-up assessments for those identified as having moderate to severe pain were not as consistent. Directed content analysis of semi-structured interviews revealed that the online training program and standardized protocol were well-received despite a few barriers to effective implementation. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, we demonstrated the feasibility of the remote delivery of an online training program and implementation of a standardized protocol to address the underassessment of pain in rural LTC facilities.

Implementation and evaluation of a pain assessment app and novel community platform for long-term care health professionals.

OBJECTIVE: A tablet app, based on the Pain Assessment Checklist for Seniors with Limited Ability to Communicate-II (PACSLAC-II), has been shown to have clinical utility and unique advantages. We aimed to replicate and extend the previous validation of the app through the implementation and evaluation of a new community platform involving a quality indicator (QI) monitoring feature and a resource community portal (CP) that work in conjunction with an updated version of the app. METHODS: We employed a mixed-methods multiple-baseline design across 11 long-term care (LTC) units. Units were randomly assigned to conditions which varied in number of app features available. Data included unit-level QIs as well as questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with health professionals. RESULTS: Following use of the app, we found improvements in unit-level QIs regardless of availability of the QI/CP features. During interviews, participants expressed a preference for the app over a paper version of the PACSLAC-II due to reasons such as the app's ability to summarize information. Utilization of the community portal websites was unrelated to staff questionnaire-assessed stress/burnout. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the positive effects on the care of residents, the COVID-19 pandemic presented challenges and interfered with the long-term maintenance of the QI results.

The Effectiveness of Social Media in the Dissemination of Knowledge About Pain in Dementia.

OBJECTIVES: Traditional knowledge dissemination methods have been ineffective in leading to timely and widespread changes in clinical practice. Social media have the potential to reach broader audiences than more traditional methods that disseminate research findings. We evaluated the effectiveness of using social media to mobilize knowledge about pain in dementia. METHODS: We developed an online repository of evidence-based content (e.g., guidelines, assessment approaches) and a video about pain in dementia. The video was uploaded to YouTube, a video-sharing platform. We collaborated with stakeholder organizations on a 5-month social media campaign (#SeePainMoreClearly) on Twitter, a social networking site, to disseminate digital content about pain in dementia. The response to our initiatives was evaluated with Web and social media metrics, a video questionnaire, and a comparison of the extent of Twitter discussions about pain in dementia before and during the campaign period. RESULTS: Web metrics showed a great reach of the initiative: The #SeePainMoreClearly hashtag received more than 5,000,000 impressions and was used in 31 countries. The online repository was viewed by 1,218 individuals from 55 countries, and the video resulted in 51,000 views. Comparisons between the pre-campaign and campaign periods demonstrated a higher number of posts about pain in dementia during the campaign period. CONCLUSION: The findings have implications for closing the knowledge-to-practice gap in dementia care through faster mobilization of scientific findings. Our campaign compares favorably with other health information dissemination initiatives. The methodologies used in the study could serve as a framework for the development of social media initiatives in other health disciplines.

Pain-related health care costs for long-term care residents.

BACKGROUND: We tested for differences in direct health care costs among long-term care (LTC) residents age 65 and older with clinically significant pain (CSP) and with no pain or non-daily mild pain (NP/NDMP). We are not aware of any other large scale investigation that examined the cost of pain in LTC environments. METHODS: Population-based administrative health data from Saskatchewan, Canada for 2004 to 2015 were used to compare direct health care costs for CSP and NP/NDMP groups up to one year after admission to LTC. Total accumulated costs for hospitalization, physician services, LTC, and prescription drugs were calculated in 2015 Canadian dollars. Group differences were tested using generalized linear models with generalized estimating equations. RESULTS: Amongst 24,870 LTC residents, 8289 (33.3%) were censored due to death or discharge in the 365-day study observation period. Of the 16,581 (66.7%) observed residents, 5683 (34.3%) had CSP at admission. Residents (66.3% female) had a mean age of 85 years (SD = 7.4). The mean annual total direct health care cost per resident was higher among the CSP group (CAD $8063) than the NP/NDMP group (CAD $6455). This difference was found even after including LTC costs, and for each cost component (i.e., CSP residents had higher hospitalization, physician, and prescription drug costs). Similar results were obtained after controlling for demographics, comorbidities, physical and cognitive impairment, prior health care costs, and facility characteristics. CONCLUSION: The higher costs incurred by CSP residents compared to NP/NDMP residents are likely underestimated because pain problems are often missed in residents with dementia, who comprise a large portion of the LTC population. Improved pain care can reduce such costs and improve quality of life.

The Relationship Between the Pain Experience and Emotion Regulation in Older Adults.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship of emotion regulation strategies (i.e., emotional suppression and reappraisal) with pain catastrophizing, fear of pain, pain intensity, worry, and depression as function of age in samples of older and younger adults. DESIGN: Cross-sectional design using validated questionnaires. SETTING: Participants resided in the community. They completed validated measures using online questionnaires. SUBJECTS: Two-hundred fifty-seven older adults and 254 younger adults with chronic pain participated. METHODS: Participants completed validated questionnaires of emotion regulation strategies, pain-related functioning and mental health. RESULTS: Emotion regulation varied as a function of age and gender. Among our chronic pain sample, older adult males reported lower use of reappraisal and suppression than younger adult males, while older adult females reported higher use of reappraisal than younger adult females. Emotional suppression was positively related to pain catastrophizing, pain intensity, worry, and depression. Reappraisal was negatively related to depression and worry. Interestingly, age showed a positive relationship with fear of pain, pain catastrophizing, worry, depression, and pain intensity, while gender was related to fear of pain and worry. Finally, emotional reappraisal partially mediated the relationship between the affective dimensions of pain intensity and pain catastrophizing among older adults. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that reappraisal strategies are important for older and younger adults with chronic pain, pointing to the necessity of considering these strategies when working clinically with such populations. However, given our findings as well as those in the literature, gender should also be considered.

Provincial legislative and regulatory standards for pain assessment and management in long-term care homes: a scoping review and in-depth case analysis.

BACKGROUND: Among Canadian residents living in long-term care (LTC) facilities, and especially among those with limited ability to communicate due to dementia, pain remains underassessed and undermanaged. Although evidence-based clinical guidelines for the assessment and management of pain exist, these clinical guidelines are not widely implemented in LTC facilities. A relatively unexplored avenue for change is the influence that statutes and regulations could exert on pain practices within LTC. This review is therefore aimed at identifying the current landscape of policy levers used across Canada to assess and manage pain among LTC residents and to evaluate the extent to which they are concordant with evidence-based clinical guidelines proposed by an international consensus group consisting of both geriatric pain and public policy experts. METHODS: Using scoping review methodology, a search for peer-reviewed journal articles and government documents pertaining to pain in Canadian LTC facilities was carried out. This scoping review was complemented by an in-depth case analysis of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario statutes and regulations. RESULTS: Across provinces, pain was highly prevalent and was associated with adverse consequences among LTC residents. The considerable benefits of using a standardized pain assessment protocol, along with the barriers in implementing such a protocol, were identified. For most provinces, pain assessment and management in LTC residents was not specifically addressed in their statutes or regulations. In Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario, regulations mandate the use of the interRAI suite of assessment tools for the assessment and reporting of pain. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of pain and the benefits of implementing standardized pain assessment protocols has been reported in the research literature. Despite occasional references to pain, however, existing regulations do not recommend assessments of pain at the frequency specified by experts. Insufficient direction on the use of specialized pain assessment tools (especially in the case of those with limited ability to communicate) that minimize reliance on subjective judgements was also identified in current regulations. Existing policies therefore fail to adequately address the underassessment and undermanagement of pain in older adults residing in LTC facilities in ways that are aligned with expert consensus.

Facilitating access to iCBT: a randomized controlled trial assessing a translated version of an empirically validated program using a minimally monitored delivery model.

BACKGROUND: Despite its established efficacy, access to internet-delivered CBT (iCBT) remains limited in a number of countries. Translating existing programs and using a minimally monitored model of delivery may facilitate its dissemination across countries. AIMS: This randomized control trial aims to evaluate the efficacy of an iCBT transdiagnostic program translated from English to French and offered in Canada using a minimally monitored delivery model for the treatment of anxiety and depression. METHOD: Sixty-three French speakers recruited in Canada were randomized to iCBT or a waiting-list. A French translation of an established program, the Wellbeing Course, was offered over 8 weeks using a minimally monitored delivery model. Primary outcome measures were the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), which were obtained pre-treatment, post-treatment and at 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: Mixed-effects models revealed that participants in the treatment group had significantly lower PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores post-treatment than controls with small between-groups effect sizes (d = 0.34 and 0.37, respectively). Within-group effect sizes on primary outcome measures were larger in the treatment than control group. Clinical recovery rates on the PHQ-9 and GAD-7 were significantly higher among the treatment group (40 and 56%, respectively) than the controls (13 and 16%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The provision of a translated iCBT program using a minimally monitored delivery model may improve patients' access to treatment of anxiety and depression across countries. This may be an optimal first step in improving access to iCBT before sufficient resources can be secured to implement a wider range of iCBT services.

Quasi-experimental evaluation of a multifaceted intervention to improve quality of end-of-life care and quality of dying for patients with advanced dementia in long-term care institutions.

BACKGROUND: Improvement in the quality of end-of-life care for advanced dementia is increasingly recognized as a priority in palliative care. AIM: To evaluate the impact of a multidimensional intervention to improve quality of care and quality of dying in advanced dementia in long-term care facilities. DESIGN: Quasi-experimental study with the intervention taking place in two long-term care facilities versus usual care in two others over a 1-year period. The intervention had five components: (1) training program to physicians and nursing staff, (2) clinical monitoring of pain using an observational pain scale, (3) implementation of a regular mouth care routine, (4) early and systematic communication with families about end-of-life care issues with provision of an information booklet, and (5) involvement of a nurse facilitator to implement and monitor the intervention. Quality of care was assessed with the Family Perception of Care Scale. The Symptom Management for End-of-Life Care in Dementia and the Comfort Assessment in Dying scales were used to assess the quality of dying. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 193 residents with advanced dementia and their close family members were included (97 in the intervention group and 96 in the usual care group). RESULTS: The Family Perception of Care score was significantly higher in the intervention group than in the usual care group (157.3 vs 149.1; p = 0.04). The Comfort Assessment and Symptom Management scores were also significantly higher in the intervention group. CONCLUSIONS: Our multidimensional intervention in long-term care facilities for patients with terminal dementia resulted in improved quality of care and quality of dying when compared to usual care.

Influence of Flaxseed Lignan Supplementation to Older Adults on Biochemical and Functional Outcome Measures of Inflammation.

Evidence from the literature suggests that dietary flaxseed lignans have the ability to modulate inflammation, which is recognized as the underlying basis of multiple chronic human diseases in older adults. Our objective was to determine the effects of oral lignan supplementation on biochemical and functional indicators of inflammation as well as safety and tolerability in older healthy adults. We designed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial in older healthy adults (60-80 years) to assess flaxseed lignan-enriched complex (∼38% secoisolariciresinol diglucoside [SDG]; 600 mg SDG dose) oral supplementation effects on biochemical and functional indicators of inflammation and safety and tolerability in older healthy adults after 6 months of once-daily oral administration. The clinical trial confirmed that plasma concentration of total flaxseed lignans (free and conjugated forms) secoisolariciresinol (SECO), enterodiol (ED), and enterolactone (ENL) were significantly associated with daily oral supplementation of flaxseed lignan-enriched complex (p < 0.05). A significant decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP; from a mean of 155 ± 13 mm Hg at baseline to 140 ± 11 mm Hg at 24 weeks) was observed in lignan-supplemented participants stratified into an SBP ≥140 mm Hg subcategory (p = 0.04). No differences were found between treatment or placebo groups in terms of cognition, pain, activity, physical measurements (calf, waist, and upper arm circumstances), and grip strength. With respect to blood inflammatory markers, lipid profiles, and biochemical parameters, no significant differences were found between treatment and placebo groups at the end of the 6-month supplementation. No adverse effects were reported during supplementation. These data further support the safety and tolerability of long-term flaxseed lignan-enriched complex supplementation in older adults and identify an ability to favorably modulate SBP, an important risk factor in cardiovascular disease.

Pain in Dementia: Use of Observational Pain Assessment Tools by People Who Are Not Health Professionals.

OBJECTIVE: Pain is prevalent among older adults but is often underestimated and undertreated, especially in people with severe dementia who have limited ability to self-report pain. Pain in patients with moderate to severe dementia can be assessed using observational tools. Informal caregivers (relatives of seniors with dementia) are an untapped assessor group who often bear the responsibility of care for their loved ones. Our objective was to evaluate the ability of laypeople to assess pain using observational measures originally developed for use by health care professionals. DESIGN: We employed a quasi-experimental design and presented videos depicting patients with dementia (portrayed by actors) displaying pain behaviors or during a calm relaxed state (no pain) to long-term care nurses and laypeople. Participants rated the pain behaviors observed in each video by completing two standardized observational measures that had been previously developed for use by long-term care staff. RESULTS: As expected, both laypeople and nurses were able to effectively differentiate painful from nonpainful situations using the standardized tools. Both groups were also able to discriminate among gradations of pain (i.e., no pain, mild, moderate, severe) and required comparable amounts of time to complete the assessments. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that, as hypothesized, the instruments under study can be used for the assessment of pain by laypeople. This is the first study to validate these instruments for use by laypeople. The use of these tools by laypeople (under the guidance of health professionals) has the potential of facilitating earlier detection and treatment of pain in older adults with dementia who live in community settings.

Can We Quickly and Thoroughly Assess Pain with the PACSLAC-II? A Convergent Validity Study in Long-Term Care Residents Suffering from Dementia.

A previous study found that the modified version of the Pain Assessment Checklist for Seniors with Limited Ability to Communicate (PACSLAC-II) is a valid tool to assess pain in elderly individuals suffering from dementia and who are unable to communicate verbally. The primary objective of this study was to confirm the convergent validity of the PACSLAC-II using direct evaluation of long-term care residents in real-life situations, using two other well-validated pain assessment scales (i.e., PACSLAC and Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia [PAINAD]). A secondary objective was to document and compare the time required to complete and score each assessment scale. During two potentially painful procedures (i.e., transfer/mobilization), 46 long-term care residents (mean age = 83 ± 10 years) suffering from dementia were observed by three independent evaluators, each using one of the assessment scales (randomly assigned). Correlational analyses and analysis of variance were used to evaluate the association between each scale and to compare scoring time. The PACSLAC (r = 0.61) and the PAINAD (r = 0.65) were both moderately associated with the PACSLAC-II (all p values < .001). The PAINAD's average scoring time (63 ± 19 seconds) was lower than the PACSLAC-II's (96 ± 2 seconds), which was lower than the PACSLAC's (135 ± 53 seconds) (all p values < .001). These results suggest that the PACSLAC-II is a valid tool for assessing pain in individuals with dementia. The time required to complete and score the PACSLAC-II was reasonable, supporting its usefulness in clinical settings.

The influence of individual and organizational factors on person-centred dementia care.

OBJECTIVES: Although some individual and organizational contributors to person-centred care or quality of care have been studied, they have rarely been examined together. Our goal was to investigate the association of personal and organizational-environmental characteristics with self-reported person-centred behaviours in long-term residential care settings. METHOD: We asked 109 long-term care staff from two Canadian long-term care homes to complete scales assessing self-reported person-centred care, organizational support for person-centred care, beliefs about personhood in dementia, and burnout. Independent variables included four employee background characteristics (age, gender, occupation, and years of education), beliefs about personhood in dementia, burnout, and three aspects of organizational support for person-centred care (the physical environment of residents, collaboration on care, and support from management). Dependent variables included five aspects of person-centred care: autonomy, personhood, knowing the person, comfort care, and support for relationships .We used multiple linear regression analysis and changes in R(2) to test variable associations. RESULTS: Including organizational variables in regression models resulted in statistically significant (p < .05) changes in R(2) for each of the five dependent variables. Including personal variables resulted in statistically significant changes in R(2) for some dependent variables, but not others. In particular, including employee background characteristics resulted in a statistically significant change in R(2) for comfort care, and including beliefs about personhood and burnout resulted in statistically significant changes in R(2) for personhood but not for other dependent variables. CONCLUSION: Organizational characteristics are associated with several aspects of person-centred dementia care. Individual characteristics, including gender, beliefs about personhood, and burnout, appear to be more important to some aspects of person-centred dementia care (e.g., respect for personhood and comfort care) than others.

Resilience and organisational empowerment among long-term care nurses: effects on patient care and absenteeism.

AIM: To study resilience among long-term care (LTC) nurses and its relationship to organisational empowerment, self-reported quality of care, perceptions of resident personhood (i.e. viewing another person as a person, implying respect) and absenteeism. BACKGROUND: Although resilience has been examined among nurses, it has not been studied in LTC nurses where resident rates of dementia are high, and nurses may experience stress affecting care and the way residents are perceived. METHOD: A sample of one hundred and thirty LTC nurses from across North America completed a series of questionnaires. RESULTS: Resilient nurses were more likely to report higher quality of care and to view residents as having higher personhood status (despite deteriorating cognitive function). Resilience was not predictive of absenteeism. Organisational empowerment did not add to the predictive power of resilience. CONCLUSIONS: Resilience is of importance in LTC nursing research and future studies could examine this construct in relation to objectively measured resident outcomes. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING MANAGEMENT: Our findings suggest that interventions to improve LTC staff resilience would be important to pursue and that consideration should be given to resilience in optimizing the match between potential staff members and LTC positions.

Positioning clinical nurse specialists and nurse practitioners as change champions to implement a pain protocol in long-term care.

Pain management for older adults in long-term care (LTC) has been recognized as a problem internationally. The purpose of this study was to explore the role of a clinical nurse specialist (CNS) and nurse practitioner (NP) as change champions during the implementation of an evidence-based pain protocol in LTC. In this exploratory, multiple-case design study, we collected data from two LTC homes in Ontario, Canada. Three data sources were used: participant observation of an NP and a CNS for 18 hours each over a 3-week period; CNS and NP diaries recording strategies, barriers, and facilitators to the implementation process; and interviews with members of the interdisciplinary team to explore perceptions about the NP and CNS role in implementing the pain protocol. Data were analyzed using thematic content analysis. The NP and CNS used a variety of effective strategies to promote pain management changes in practice including educational outreach with team members, reminders to nursing staff to highlight the pain protocol and educate about practice changes, chart audits and feedback to the nursing staff, interdisciplinary working group meetings, ad hoc meetings with nursing staff, and resident assessment using advanced skills. The CNS and NP are ideal champions to implement pain management protocols and likely other quality improvement initiatives.

Finding Meaning in the Work of Nursing: An International Study.

Sixty nurses from five countries (Canada, India, Ireland, Japan, and Korea) took part in 11 focus groups that discussed the question: Do you consider your work meaningful? Fostering meaning and mentorship as part of the institutional culture was a central theme that emerged from the discussions. In this article, we begin with a background discussion of meaning and meaningful work as presented in the literature related to existentialism and hardiness. Next, we describe the method and analysis processes we used in our qualitative study asking how nurses find meaning in their very challenging work and report our findings of four themes that emerged from the comments shared by nurses, specifically relationships, compassionate caring, identity, and a mentoring culture. After offering a discussion of our findings and noting the limitations of this qualitative study, we conclude that nursing leaders and a culture of mentorship play an important role in fostering meaningful work and developing hardy employees.

A qualitative investigation of the roles and perspectives of older patients with advanced cancer and their family caregivers in managing pain in the home.

BACKGROUND: Pain in advanced cancer is complex and multifaceted. In older patients comorbidities and age-related functional decline add to the difficulties in managing cancer pain. The current emphasis on care in the community, and preference by patients with life-limiting disease to receive care in the home, has meant that patients and their family caregivers have become increasingly responsible for the day-to-day management of cancer pain. An appreciation of patients' and caregivers' roles and perspectives managing pain is, therefore, fundamental to addressing cancer pain in this setting. Consequently, we sought to explore and describe their perspectives and roles. METHODS: A qualitative descriptive approach was used. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a purposeful sample of patient- family caregiver dyads. Participants included 18 patients aged 65 years and over, with advanced cancer, receiving palliative care at home, and 15 family caregivers. The interview data were analysed using thematic analyses. Strategies were used to establish rigour. RESULTS: Two main themes were identified. The first theme, "Communicating the pain", represented pain assessment and incorporated four subthemes in which participants described: their roles in pain assessment, the identification and expression of pain, and the communication of pain between patients and caregivers. The second theme, "Finding a solution", comprised of four subthemes that reflected participants' roles and approaches in controlling pain; as well as their beliefs about cancer pain control, experience with side effects, and perspectives on the goals of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support other studies in identifying knowledge and attitudinal barriers to pain control; while adding to the literature by highlighting practical and relational barriers faced by older patients and their family caregivers. Health care professionals can do much to address the barriers identified by: correcting misconceptions regarding cancer pain, facilitating the communication of pain within dyads, and ensuring that patients and family caregivers have the knowledge, skills, and ability to assess and implement pain treatment strategies. This support needs to be individually tailored to meet the ongoing needs of both members of the dyad so that the shared goals of pain management are accomplished.

Improving pain assessment practices and outcomes in long-term care facilities: a mixed methods investigation.

An ongoing concern in long-term care (LTC) is that pain problems are often not identified correctly. There is also evidence that behavioral disturbance due to pain is misattributed to psychiatric conditions and consequently frequently treated with psychotropic rather than analgesic medication. This can result in unnecessary polypharmacy and ineffective pain management. In a previous study, implementation of a pain assessment protocol resulted in changes in administration of pro re nata (PRN) medications and positive outcomes. However, there were no changes in regularly scheduled medications suggesting that assessment results were either not communicated to the prescribing physicians or not taken into account. The goal of this study was to determine whether a pain assessment protocol, augmented with communication of the assessment results to the residents' physicians, affects prescriptions of analgesic and psychotropic medication. Psychotropic medication reduction would help address the problem of polypharmacy frequently seen in LTC facilities. PRN medications were also examined. This investigation involved a two group design (control vs. assessment). A mixed methods analysis included both quantitative and qualitative procedures. At the end of the study, residents in the pain assessment group were administered fewer psychotropic medications than patients in the control group, helping address the problem of polypharmacy. Pain levels were comparable between the groups. Health care staff indicated that the protocol resulted in more careful evaluation of residents' pain and greater appropriateness of prescriptions including reductions in polypharmacy.

Pain in Dementia: An Empirical Test of a Common Assumption.

Numerous, and often largely overlapping, observational pain assessment tools have been developed specifically to assess pain in older adults with dementia under the assumption that a specialized approach is necessary to evaluate pain in this population. However, this assumption has never been tested empirically. As an empirical test of this implicit assumption, our goal was to compare existing tools for people living with dementia (with respect to psychometric properties), not only against each other, but also against a tool developed for a different population with cognitive impairments. Videos of older adults with severe dementia recorded in long-term care settings were coded for pain behaviors in the laboratory. Trained coders coded pain behaviors in video segments of older adults with dementia during a quiet baseline condition as well as during a physical examination (designed to identify painful areas), using various observational pain assessment tools. An observational measure of agitation was employed to facilitate the assessment of discriminant validity. Consistent with our expectations, all pain tools (including the tool developed for younger people with cognitive impairments) successfully differentiated between painful and nonpainful states, with large effect sizes. This was the first study to compare tools specifically developed to assess pain in people living with dementia to a tool developed for a different population. Given that all tools under study showed satisfactory psychometric properties when tested on persons with dementia, this study suggests that the assumption that different tools are necessary for different populations with cognitive impairments cannot be taken for granted. PERSPECTIVE: This article challenges an implicitly held assumption that specialized tools are needed to assess pain in different populations with cognitive impairments. Given commonalities in pain expression across populations, further research is needed to determine whether population-specific tools are needed.