Cohesins functionally associate with CTCF on mammalian chromosome arms.

Cohesins mediate sister chromatid cohesion, which is essential for chromosome segregation and postreplicative DNA repair. In addition, cohesins appear to regulate gene expression and enhancer-promoter interactions. These noncanonical functions remained unexplained because knowledge of cohesin-binding sites and functional interactors in metazoans was lacking. We show that the distribution of cohesins on mammalian chromosome arms is not driven by transcriptional activity, in contrast to S. cerevisiae. Instead, mammalian cohesins occupy a subset of DNase I hypersensitive sites, many of which contain sequence motifs resembling the consensus for CTCF, a DNA-binding protein with enhancer blocking function and boundary-element activity. We find cohesins at most CTCF sites and show that CTCF is required for cohesin localization to these sites. Recruitment by CTCF suggests a rationale for noncanonical cohesin functions and, because CTCF binding is sensitive to DNA methylation, allows cohesin positioning to integrate DNA sequence and epigenetic state.

Epigenomic enhancer annotation reveals a key role for NFIX in neural stem cell quiescence.

The majority of neural stem cells (NSCs) in the adult brain are quiescent, and this fraction increases with aging. Although signaling pathways that promote NSC quiescence have been identified, the transcriptional mechanisms involved are mostly unknown, largely due to lack of a cell culture model. In this study, we first demonstrate that NSC cultures (NS cells) exposed to BMP4 acquire cellular and transcriptional characteristics of quiescent cells. We then use epigenomic profiling to identify enhancers associated with the quiescent NS cell state. Motif enrichment analysis of these enhancers predicts a major role for the nuclear factor one (NFI) family in the gene regulatory network controlling NS cell quiescence. Interestingly, we found that the family member NFIX is robustly induced when NS cells enter quiescence. Using genome-wide location analysis and overexpression and silencing experiments, we demonstrate that NFIX has a major role in the induction of quiescence in cultured NSCs. Transcript profiling of NS cells overexpressing or silenced for Nfix and the phenotypic analysis of the hippocampus of Nfix mutant mice suggest that NFIX controls the quiescent state by regulating the interactions of NSCs with their microenvironment.

Genetic Tailors: CTCF and Cohesin Shape the Genome During Evolution.

Research into chromosome structure and organization is an old field that has seen some fascinating progress in recent years. Modern molecular methods that can describe the shape of chromosomes have begun to revolutionize our understanding of genome organization and the mechanisms that regulate gene activity. A picture is beginning to emerge of chromatin loops representing a widespread organizing principle of the chromatin fiber and the proteins cohesin and CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) as key players anchoring such chromatin loops. Here we review our current understanding of the features of CTCF- and cohesin-mediated genome organization and how their evolution may have helped to shape genome structure.

Cohesin biology meets the loop extrusion model.

Extensive research has revealed that cohesin acts as a topological device, trapping chromosomal DNA within a large tripartite ring. In so doing, cohesin contributes to the formation of compact and organized genomes. How exactly the cohesin subunits interact, how it opens, closes, and translocates on chromatin, and how it actually tethers DNA strands together are still being elucidated. A comprehensive understanding of these questions will shed light on how cohesin performs its many functions, including its recently proposed role as a chromatid loop extruder. Here, we discuss this possibility in light of our understanding of the molecular properties of cohesin complexes.

Cohesin-mediated interactions organize chromosomal domain architecture.

To ensure proper gene regulation within constrained nuclear space, chromosomes facilitate access to transcribed regions, while compactly packaging all other information. Recent studies revealed that chromosomes are organized into megabase-scale domains that demarcate active and inactive genetic elements, suggesting that compartmentalization is important for genome function. Here, we show that very specific long-range interactions are anchored by cohesin/CTCF sites, but not cohesin-only or CTCF-only sites, to form a hierarchy of chromosomal loops. These loops demarcate topological domains and form intricate internal structures within them. Post-mitotic nuclei deficient for functional cohesin exhibit global architectural changes associated with loss of cohesin/CTCF contacts and relaxation of topological domains. Transcriptional analysis shows that this cohesin-dependent perturbation of domain organization leads to widespread gene deregulation of both cohesin-bound and non-bound genes. Our data thereby support a role for cohesin in the global organization of domain structure and suggest that domains function to stabilize the transcriptional programmes within them.

Cohesins form chromosomal cis-interactions at the developmentally regulated IFNG locus.

Cohesin-mediated sister chromatid cohesion is essential for chromosome segregation and post-replicative DNA repair. In addition, evidence from model organisms and from human genetics suggests that cohesin is involved in the control of gene expression. This non-canonical role has recently been rationalized by the findings that mammalian cohesin complexes are recruited to a subset of DNase I hypersensitive sites and to conserved noncoding sequences by the DNA-binding protein CTCF. CTCF functions at insulators (which control interactions between enhancers and promoters) and at boundary elements (which demarcate regions of distinct chromatin structure), and cohesin contributes to its enhancer-blocking activity. The underlying mechanisms remain unknown, and the full spectrum of cohesin functions remains to be determined. Here we show that cohesin forms the topological and mechanistic basis for cell-type-specific long-range chromosomal interactions in cis at the developmentally regulated cytokine locus IFNG. Hence, the ability of cohesin to constrain chromosome topology is used not only for the purpose of sister chromatid cohesion, but also to dynamically define the spatial conformation of specific loci. This new aspect of cohesin function is probably important for normal development and disease.

The N-terminus of Stag1 is required to repress the 2C program by maintaining rRNA expression and nucleolar integrity.

Our understanding of how STAG proteins contribute to cell identity and disease have largely been studied from the perspective of chromosome topology and protein-coding gene expression. Here, we show that STAG1 is the dominant paralog in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) and is required for pluripotency. mESCs express a wide diversity of naturally occurring Stag1 isoforms, resulting in complex regulation of both the levels of STAG paralogs and the proportion of their unique terminal ends. Skewing the balance of these isoforms impacts cell identity. We define a novel role for STAG1, in particular its N-terminus, in regulating repeat expression, nucleolar integrity, and repression of the two-cell (2C) state to maintain mESC identity. Our results move beyond protein-coding gene regulation via chromatin loops to new roles for STAG1 in nucleolar structure and function, and offer fresh perspectives on how STAG proteins, known to be cancer targets, contribute to cell identity and disease.

A novel intergenic enhancer that regulates Bdnf expression in developing cortical neurons.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes neuronal differentiation and survival and is implicated in the pathogenesis of many neurological disorders. Here, we identified a novel intergenic enhancer located 170 kb from the Bdnf gene, which promotes the expression of Bdnf transcript variants during mouse neuronal differentiation and activity. Following Bdnf activation, enhancer-promoter contacts increase, and the region moves away from the repressive nuclear periphery. Bdnf enhancer activity is necessary for neuronal clustering and dendritogenesis in vitro, and for cortical development in vivo. Our findings provide the first evidence of a regulatory mechanism whereby the activation of a distal enhancer promotes Bdnf expression during brain development.

Cohesin-independent STAG proteins interact with RNA and R-loops and promote complex loading.

Most studies of cohesin function consider the Stromalin Antigen (STAG/SA) proteins as core complex members given their ubiquitous interaction with the cohesin ring. Here, we provide functional data to support the notion that the SA subunit is not a mere passenger in this structure, but instead plays a key role in the localization of cohesin to diverse biological processes and promotes loading of the complex at these sites. We show that in cells acutely depleted for RAD21, SA proteins remain bound to chromatin, cluster in 3D and interact with CTCF, as well as with a wide range of RNA binding proteins involved in multiple RNA processing mechanisms. Accordingly, SA proteins interact with RNA, and R-loops, even in the absence of cohesin. Our results place SA1 on chromatin upstream of the cohesin ring and reveal a role for SA1 in cohesin loading which is independent of NIPBL, the canonical cohesin loader. We propose that SA1 takes advantage of structural R-loop platforms to link cohesin loading and chromatin structure with diverse functions. Since SA proteins are pan-cancer targets, and R-loops play an increasingly prevalent role in cancer biology, our results have important implications for the mechanistic understanding of SA proteins in cancer and disease.

Enhancer accessibility and CTCF occupancy underlie asymmetric TAD architecture and cell type specific genome topology.

Cohesin and CTCF are master regulators of genome topology. How these ubiquitous proteins contribute to cell-type specific genome structure is poorly understood. Here, we explore quantitative aspects of topologically associated domains (TAD) between pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESC) and lineage-committed cells. ESCs exhibit permissive topological configurations which manifest themselves as increased inter- TAD interactions, weaker intra-TAD interactions, and a unique intra-TAD connectivity whereby one border makes pervasive interactions throughout the domain. Such 'stripe' domains are associated with both poised and active chromatin landscapes and transcription is not a key determinant of their structure. By tracking the developmental dynamics of stripe domains, we show that stripe formation is linked to the functional state of the cell through cohesin loading at lineage-specific enhancers and developmental control of CTCF binding site occupancy. We propose that the unique topological configuration of stripe domains represents a permissive landscape facilitating both productive and opportunistic gene regulation and is important for cellular identity.

Capturing Complex Enhancer Regulatory Hubs? Try Tri-C.

A recent study in Nature Genetics (Oudelaar et al., 2018) has developed a new method to study multi-way chromatin interactions at the allelic level from regulatory elements with high sensitivity and resolution. The method, termed 'Tri-C' is used to explore the combinatorial interactions between multiple regulatory elements underlying precise gene regulation of the globin locus.

Integrative detection and analysis of structural variation in cancer genomes.

Structural variants (SVs) can contribute to oncogenesis through a variety of mechanisms. Despite their importance, the identification of SVs in cancer genomes remains challenging. Here, we present a framework that integrates optical mapping, high-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C), and whole-genome sequencing to systematically detect SVs in a variety of normal or cancer samples and cell lines. We identify the unique strengths of each method and demonstrate that only integrative approaches can comprehensively identify SVs in the genome. By combining Hi-C and optical mapping, we resolve complex SVs and phase multiple SV events to a single haplotype. Furthermore, we observe widespread structural variation events affecting the functions of noncoding sequences, including the deletion of distal regulatory sequences, alteration of DNA replication timing, and the creation of novel three-dimensional chromatin structural domains. Our results indicate that noncoding SVs may be underappreciated mutational drivers in cancer genomes.

More to cohesin than meets the eye: complex diversity for fine-tuning of function.

Recent years have witnessed a dramatic expansion in our understanding of gene control. It is now widely appreciated that the spatial organization of the genome and the manner in which genes and regulatory elements are embedded therein has a critical role in facilitating the regulation of gene expression. The loop structures that underlie chromosome organization are anchored by cohesin complexes. Several components of the cohesin complex have multiple paralogs, leading to different levels of cohesin complex variants in cells. Here we review the current literature around cohesin variants and their known functions. We further discuss how variation in cohesin complex composition can result in functional differences that can impact genome organization and determine cell fate.

Detecting Spatial Chromatin Organization by Chromosome Conformation Capture II: Genome-Wide Profiling by Hi-C.

The chromosome conformation capture (3C) method has been invaluable in studying chromatin interactions in a population of cells at a resolution surpassing that of light microscopy, for example in the detection of functional contacts between enhancers and promoters. Recent developments in sequencing-based chromosomal contact mapping (Hi-C, 5C and 4C-Seq) have allowed researchers to interrogate pairwise chromatin interactions on a wider scale, shedding light on the three-dimensional organization of chromosomes. These methods present significant technical and bioinformatic challenges to consider at the start of the project. Here, we describe two alternative methods for Hi-C, depending on the size of the genome, and discuss the major computational approaches to convert the raw sequencing data into meaningful models of how genomes are organized.

Topoisomerase II beta interacts with cohesin and CTCF at topological domain borders.

BACKGROUND: Type II DNA topoisomerases (TOP2) regulate DNA topology by generating transient double stranded breaks during replication and transcription. Topoisomerase II beta (TOP2B) facilitates rapid gene expression and functions at the later stages of development and differentiation. To gain new insight into the genome biology of TOP2B, we used proteomics (BioID), chromatin immunoprecipitation, and high-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) to identify novel proximal TOP2B protein interactions and characterize the genomic landscape of TOP2B binding at base pair resolution. RESULTS: Our human TOP2B proximal protein interaction network included members of the cohesin complex and nucleolar proteins associated with rDNA biology. TOP2B associates with DNase I hypersensitivity sites, allele-specific transcription factor (TF) binding, and evolutionarily conserved TF binding sites on the mouse genome. Approximately half of all CTCF/cohesion-bound regions coincided with TOP2B binding. Base pair resolution ChIP-exo mapping of TOP2B, CTCF, and cohesin sites revealed a striking structural ordering of these proteins along the genome relative to the CTCF motif. These ordered TOP2B-CTCF-cohesin sites flank the boundaries of topologically associating domains (TADs) with TOP2B positioned externally and cohesin internally to the domain loop. CONCLUSIONS: TOP2B is positioned to solve topological problems at diverse cis-regulatory elements and its occupancy is a highly ordered and prevalent feature of CTCF/cohesin binding sites that flank TADs.

Comparative Hi-C reveals that CTCF underlies evolution of chromosomal domain architecture.

Topological domains are key architectural building blocks of chromosomes, but their functional importance and evolutionary dynamics are not well defined. We performed comparative high-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) in four mammals and characterized the conservation and divergence of chromosomal contact insulation and the resulting domain architectures within distantly related genomes. We show that the modular organization of chromosomes is robustly conserved in syntenic regions and that this is compatible with conservation of the binding landscape of the insulator protein CTCF. Specifically, conserved CTCF sites are co-localized with cohesin, are enriched at strong topological domain borders, and bind to DNA motifs with orientations that define the directionality of CTCF's long-range interactions. Conversely, divergent CTCF binding between species is correlated with divergence of internal domain structure, likely driven by local CTCF binding sequence changes, demonstrating how genome evolution can be linked to a continuous flux of local conformation changes. We also show that large-scale domains are reorganized during genome evolution as intact modules.

Cohesin-mediated chromatin interactions--into the third dimension of gene regulation.

A comprehensive description of the complex three-dimensional organization of our genome and of the protein complexes mediating this organization is required in order to fully appreciate the regulation of gene activity contained within it. This review will focus on the emerging role of cohesin proteins in the regulation of gene expression and specifically their role in mediating chromatin interactions. Cohesin complexes are essential for cell division, and it is becoming increasingly clear that these adaptable structures perform a wide variety of chromosomal functions during all parts of the cell cycle. We will review recent literature which provides evidence that cohesin complexes function during interphase to facilitate interactions between long-distance DNA elements important for appropriate gene activity. It seems probable that the role for cohesins in mediating chromatin loops at particular loci is of general importance in defining global genome organization.

IL4 blockade of inducible regulatory T cell differentiation: the role of Th2 cells, Gata3 and PU.1.

Naive CD4 T cells differentiate into functionally distinct T helper (Th) cells subsets or into regulatory T (Treg) cells in response to the cytokine milieu in which they encounter antigen. A recurring theme in post-thymic CD4 T cell differentiation is the cross-regulation of lineage choice by cytokines and transcription factors that are expressed in alternative lineages. For example, TGFbeta induces the de novo expression of the Treg cell signature transcription factor Foxp3, but iTreg differentiation is blocked by high concentrations of the Th2 cytokine IL4. However, whether IL4 can antagonise Foxp3 induction in more physiological settings remains to be addressed. Here we use a co-culture system to demonstrate that IL4 provided by Th2 cells in vitro is sufficient to block Foxp3 induction in naive CD4 T cells. In addition, we find that Foxp3 induction is efficiently blocked not only by the Th2 transcription factor Gata3, but also by PU.1, which is transiently induced during Th2 differentiation. These data suggest that iTreg differentiation may be affected by the polarity of immune responses.

A conserved insulator that recruits CTCF and cohesin exists between the closely related but divergently regulated interleukin-3 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor genes.

The human interleukin-3 (IL-3) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating-factor (GM-CSF, or CSF2) gene cluster arose by duplication of an ancestral gene. Although just 10 kb apart and responsive to the same signals, the IL-3 and GM-CSF genes are nevertheless regulated independently by separate, tissue-specific enhancers. To understand the differential regulation of the IL-3 and GM-CSF genes we have investigated a cluster of three ubiquitous DNase I-hypersensitive sites (DHSs) located between the two genes. We found that each site contains a conserved CTCF consensus sequence, binds CTCF, and recruits the cohesin subunit Rad21 in vivo. The positioning of these sites relative to the IL-3 and GM-CSF genes and their respective enhancers is conserved between human and mouse, suggesting a functional role in the organization of the locus. We found that these sites effectively block functional interactions between the GM-CSF enhancer and either the IL-3 or the GM-CSF promoter in reporter gene assays. These data argue that the regulation of the IL-3 and the GM-CSF promoters depends on the positions of their enhancers relative to the conserved CTCF/cohesin-binding sites. We suggest that one important role of these sites is to enable the independent regulation of the IL-3 and GM-CSF genes.