Selenoprotein I is indispensable for ether lipid homeostasis and proper myelination.

Selenoprotein I (SELENOI) catalyzes the final reaction of the CDP-ethanolamine branch of the Kennedy pathway, generating the phospholipids phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and plasmenyl-PE. Plasmenyl-PE is a key component of myelin and is characterized by a vinyl ether bond that preferentially reacts with oxidants, thus serves as a sacrificial antioxidant. In humans, multiple loss-of-function mutations in genes affecting plasmenyl-PE metabolism have been implicated in hereditary spastic paraplegia, including SELENOI. Herein, we developed a mouse model of nervous system-restricted SELENOI deficiency that circumvents embryonic lethality caused by constitutive deletion and recapitulates phenotypic features of hereditary spastic paraplegia. Resulting mice exhibited pronounced alterations in brain lipid composition, which coincided with motor deficits and neuropathology including hypomyelination, elevated reactive gliosis, and microcephaly. Further studies revealed increased lipid peroxidation in oligodendrocyte lineage cells and disrupted oligodendrocyte maturation both in vivo and in vitro. Altogether, these findings detail a critical role for SELENOI-derived plasmenyl-PE in myelination that is of paramount importance for neurodevelopment.

Selenoproteins as regulators of T cell proliferation, differentiation, and metabolism.

Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient that plays a key role in regulating the immune system. T cells are of particular interest due to their important role in promoting adaptive immunity against pathogens and cancer as well as regulating tolerance, all of which are influenced by dietary Se levels. The biological effects of Se are mainly exerted through the actions of the proteins into which it is inserted, i.e. selenoproteins. Thus, the roles that selenoproteins play in regulating T cell biology and molecular mechanisms involved have emerged as important areas of research for understanding how selenium affects immunity. Members of this diverse family of proteins exhibit a wide variety of functions within T cells that include regulating calcium flux induced by T cell receptor (TCR) engagement, shaping the redox tone of T cells before, during, and after activation, and linking TCR-induced activation to metabolic reprogramming required for T cell proliferation and differentiation. This review summarizes recent insights into the roles that selenoproteins play in these processes and their implications in understanding how Se may influence immunity.

T-cell activation decreases miRNA-15a/16 levels to promote MEK1-ERK1/2-Elk1 signaling and proliferative capacity.

While miRs have been extensively studied in the context of malignancy and tumor progression, their functions in regulating T-cell activation are less clear. In initial studies, we found reduced levels of miR-15a/16 at 3 to 18 h post-T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation, suggesting a role for decreased levels of this miR pair in shaping T-cell activation. To further explore this, we developed an inducible miR15a/16 transgenic mouse model to determine how elevating miR-15a/16 levels during early stages of activation would affect T-cell proliferation and to identify TCR signaling pathways regulated by this miR pair. Doxycycline (DOX)-induced expression of miR-15a/16 from 0 to 18 h post-TCR stimulation decreased ex vivo T-cell proliferation as well as in vivo antigen-specific T-cell proliferation. We also combined bioinformatics and proteomics approaches to identify the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 (MEK1) (Map2k1) as a target of miR-15a/16. MEK1 targeting by miR-15a/16 was confirmed using miR mimics that decreased Map2k1 mRNA containing the 3'-UTR target nucleotide sequence (UGCUGCUA) but did not decrease Map2k1 containing a mutated control sequence (AAAAAAAA). Phosphorylation of downstream signaling molecules, extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and Elk1, was also decreased by DOX-induced miR-15a/16 expression. In addition to MEK1, ERK1 was subsequently found to be targeted by miR-15a/16, with DOX-induced miR-15a/16 reducing total ERK1 levels in T cells. These findings show that TCR stimulation reduces miR-15a/16 levels at early stages of T-cell activation to facilitate increased MEK1 and ERK1, which promotes the sustained MEK1-ERK1/2-Elk1 signaling required for optimal proliferation.

Selenoprotein I (selenoi) as a critical enzyme in the central nervous system.

Selenoprotein I (selenoi) is a unique selenocysteine (Sec)-containing protein widely expressed throughout the body. Selenoi belongs to two different protein families: the selenoproteins that are characterized by a redox reactive Sec residue and the lipid phosphotransferases that contain the highly conserved cytidine diphosphate (CDP)-alcohol phosphotransferase motif. Selenoi catalyzes the third reaction of the CDP-ethanolamine branch of the Kennedy pathway within the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. This is not a redox reaction and does not directly involve the Sec residue, making selenoi quite distinct among selenoproteins. Selenoi is also unique among lipid phosphotransferases as the only family member containing a Sec residue near its C-terminus that serves an unknown function. The reaction catalyzed by selenoi involves the transfer of the ethanolamine phosphate group from CDP-ethanolamine to one of two lipid donors, 1,2-diacylglycerol (DAG) or 1-alkyl-2-acylglycerol (AAG), to produce PE or plasmanyl PE, respectively. Plasmanyl PE is subsequently converted to plasmenyl PE by plasmanylethanolamine desaturase. Both PE and plasmenyl PE are critical phospholipids in the central nervous system (CNS), as demonstrated through clinical studies involving SELENOI mutations as well as studies in cell lines and mice. Deletion of SELENOI in mice is embryonic lethal, while loss-of-function mutations in the human SELENOI gene have been found in rare cases leading to a form of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP). HSP is an upper motor disease characterized by spasticity of the lower limbs, which is often manifested with other symptoms such as impaired vision/hearing, ataxia, cognitive/intellectual impairment, and seizures. This article will summarize the current understanding of selenoi as a metabolic enzyme and discuss its role in the CNS physiology and pathophysiology.

MsrB1 and MICALs regulate actin assembly and macrophage function via reversible stereoselective methionine oxidation.

Redox control of protein function involves oxidation and reduction of amino acid residues, but the mechanisms and regulators involved are insufficiently understood. Here, we report that in conjunction with Mical proteins, methionine-R-sulfoxide reductase B1 (MsrB1) regulates mammalian actin assembly via stereoselective methionine oxidation and reduction in a reversible, site-specific manner. Two methionine residues in actin are specifically converted to methionine-R-sulfoxide by Mical1 and Mical2 and reduced back to methionine by selenoprotein MsrB1, supporting actin disassembly and assembly, respectively. Macrophages utilize this redox control during cellular activation by stimulating MsrB1 expression and activity as a part of innate immunity. We identified the regulatory role of MsrB1 as a Mical antagonist in orchestrating actin dynamics and macrophage function. More generally, our study shows that proteins can be regulated by reversible site-specific methionine-R-sulfoxidation.

Roles for Selenoprotein I and Ethanolamine Phospholipid Synthesis in T Cell Activation.

The selenoprotein family includes 25 members, many of which are antioxidant or redox regulating enzymes. A unique member of this family is Selenoprotein I (SELENOI), which does not catalyze redox reactions, but instead is an ethanolamine phosphotransferase (Ept). In fact, the characteristic selenocysteine residue that defines selenoproteins lies far outside of the catalytic domain of SELENOI. Furthermore, data using recombinant SELENOI lacking the selenocysteine residue have suggested that the selenocysteine amino acid is not directly involved in the Ept reaction. SELENOI is involved in two different pathways for the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and plasmenyl PE, which are constituents of cellular membranes. Ethanolamine phospholipid synthesis has emerged as an important process for metabolic reprogramming that occurs in pluripotent stem cells and proliferating tumor cells, and this review discusses roles for upregulation of SELENOI during T cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation. SELENOI deficiency lowers but does not completely diminish de novo synthesis of PE and plasmenyl PE during T cell activation. Interestingly, metabolic reprogramming in activated SELENOI deficient T cells is impaired and this reduces proliferative capacity while favoring tolerogenic to pathogenic phenotypes that arise from differentiation. The implications of these findings are discussed related to vaccine responses, autoimmunity, and cell-based therapeutic approaches.

Selenoprotein I is essential for murine embryogenesis.

Selenoprotein I (SELENOI) is an ethanolamine phosphotransferase that catalyzes the third reaction of the Kennedy pathway for the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine. Since the role of SELENOI in murine embryogenesis has not been investigated, SELENOI-/+ mating pairs were used to generate global KO offspring. Of 323 weanling pups, no homozygous KO genotypes were found. E6.5-E18.5 embryos (165 total) were genotyped, and only two E18.5 KO embryos were detected with no discernable anatomical defects. To screen embryos prior to uterine implantation that occurs ~ E6, blastocyst embryos (E3.5-E4.4) were flushed from uteruses of pregnant females and analyzed for morphology and genotype. KO embryos were detected in 5 of 6 pregnant females, and 7 of the 32 genotyped embryos were found to be SELENOI KO that exhibited no overt pathological features. Overall, these results demonstrate that, except for rare cases (2/490 = 0.4%), global SELENOI deletion leads to early embryonic lethality.

Selenomethionine Mitigates Cognitive Decline by Targeting Both Tau Hyperphosphorylation and Autophagic Clearance in an Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model.

Tau pathology was recently identified as a key driver of disease progression and an attractive therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Selenomethionine (Se-Met), a major bioactive form of selenium (Se) in organisms with significant antioxidant capacity, reduced the levels of total tau and hyperphosphorylated tau and ameliorated cognitive deficits in younger triple transgenic AD (3xTg-AD) mice. Whether Se-Met has a similar effect on tau pathology and the specific mechanism of action in older 3xTg-AD mice remains unknown. Autophagy is a major self-degradative process to maintain cellular homeostasis and function. Autophagic dysfunction has been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple age-dependent diseases, including AD. Modulation of autophagy has been shown to retard the accumulation of misfolded and aggregated proteins and to delay the progression of AD. Here, we found that 3xTg-AD mice showed significant improvement in cognitive ability after a 3-month treatment with Se-Met beginning at 8 months of age. In addition to attenuating the hyperphosphorylation of tau by modulating the activity of Akt/glycogen synthase kinase-3ß and protein phosphatase 2A, Se-Met-induced reduction of tau was also mediated by an autophagy-based pathway. Specifically, Se-Met improved the initiation of autophagy via the AMP-activated protein kinase-mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) signaling pathway and enhanced autophagic flux to promote the clearance of tau in 3xTg-AD mice and primary 3xTg neurons. Thus, our results demonstrate for the first time that Se-Met mitigates cognitive decline by targeting both the hyperphosphorylation of tau and the autophagic clearance of tau in AD mice. These data strongly support Se-Met as a potent nutraceutical for AD therapy.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Selenium has been widely recognized as a vital trace element abundant in the brain with effects of antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammation. In this study, we report that selenomethionine rescues spatial learning and memory impairments in aged 3xTg-AD mice via decreasing the level of tau protein and tau hyperphosphorylation. We find that selenomethionine promotes the initiation of autophagy via the AMPK-mTOR pathway and enhances autophagic flux, thereby facilitating tau clearance in vivo and in vitro We have now identified an additional, novel mechanism by which selenomethionine improves the cognitive function of AD mice. Specifically, our data suggest the effect of selenium/selenomethionine on an autophagic pathway in Alzheimer's disease.

Selenoprotein Gene Nomenclature.

The human genome contains 25 genes coding for selenocysteine-containing proteins (selenoproteins). These proteins are involved in a variety of functions, most notably redox homeostasis. Selenoprotein enzymes with known functions are designated according to these functions: TXNRD1, TXNRD2, and TXNRD3 (thioredoxin reductases), GPX1, GPX2, GPX3, GPX4, and GPX6 (glutathione peroxidases), DIO1, DIO2, and DIO3 (iodothyronine deiodinases), MSRB1 (methionine sulfoxide reductase B1), and SEPHS2 (selenophosphate synthetase 2). Selenoproteins without known functions have traditionally been denoted by SEL or SEP symbols. However, these symbols are sometimes ambiguous and conflict with the approved nomenclature for several other genes. Therefore, there is a need to implement a rational and coherent nomenclature system for selenoprotein-encoding genes. Our solution is to use the root symbol SELENO followed by a letter. This nomenclature applies to SELENOF (selenoprotein F, the 15-kDa selenoprotein, SEP15), SELENOH (selenoprotein H, SELH, C11orf31), SELENOI (selenoprotein I, SELI, EPT1), SELENOK (selenoprotein K, SELK), SELENOM (selenoprotein M, SELM), SELENON (selenoprotein N, SEPN1, SELN), SELENOO (selenoprotein O, SELO), SELENOP (selenoprotein P, SeP, SEPP1, SELP), SELENOS (selenoprotein S, SELS, SEPS1, VIMP), SELENOT (selenoprotein T, SELT), SELENOV (selenoprotein V, SELV), and SELENOW (selenoprotein W, SELW, SEPW1). This system, approved by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee, also resolves conflicting, missing, and ambiguous designations for selenoprotein genes and is applicable to selenoproteins across vertebrates.

Selenium nanoparticles decorated with Ulva lactuca polysaccharide potentially attenuate colitis by inhibiting NF-κB mediated hyper inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient trace element and an established nutritional antioxidant. Low Se status exacerbates inflammatory bowel diseases progression, which involves hyper inflammation in the digestive tract. Se nanoparticles (SeNPs) exhibit anti-inflammatory activity accompanied by low toxicity, especially when decorated with natural biological compounds. Herein, we explored the beneficial effects of SeNPs decorated with Ulva lactuca polysaccharide (ULP) in mice subjected to the acute colitis model. RESULTS: We constructed SeNPs coated with ULP (ULP-SeNPs) in average diameter ~130 nm and demonstrated their stability and homogeneity. Supplementation with ULP-SeNPs (0.8 ppm Se) resulted in a significant protective effect on DSS-induced acute colitis in mice including mitigation of body weight loss, and colonic inflammatory damage. ULP-SeNPs ameliorated macrophage infiltration as evidenced by decreased CD68 levels in colon tissue sections. The anti-inflammatory effects of ULP-SeNPs were found to involve modulation of cytokines including IL-6 and TNF-α. Mechanistically, ULP-SeNPs inhibited the activation of macrophages by suppressing the nuclear translocation of NF-κB, which drives the transcription of these pro-inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSIONS: ULP-SeNPs supplementation may offer therapeutic potential for reducing the symptoms of acute colitis through its anti-inflammatory actions.

Stable expression and function of the inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor requires palmitoylation by a DHHC6/selenoprotein K complex.

Calcium (Ca(2+)) is a secondary messenger in cells and Ca(2+) flux initiated from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stores via inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) binding to the IP3 receptor (IP3R) is particularly important for the activation and function of immune cells. Previous studies demonstrated that genetic deletion of selenoprotein K (Selk) led to decreased Ca(2+) flux in a variety of immune cells and impaired immunity, but the mechanism was unclear. Here we show that Selk deficiency does not affect receptor-induced IP3 production, but Selk deficiency through genetic deletion or low selenium in culture media leads to low expression of the IP3R due to a defect in IP3R palmitoylation. Bioinformatic analysis of the DHHC (letters represent the amino acids aspartic acid, histidine, histidine, and cysteine in the catalytic domain) family of enzymes that catalyze protein palmitoylation revealed that one member, DHHC6, contains a predicted Src-homology 3 (SH3) domain and DHHC6 is localized to the ER membrane. Because Selk is also an ER membrane protein and contains an SH3 binding domain, immunofluorescence and coimmunoprecipitation experiments were conducted and revealed DHHC6/Selk interactions in the ER membrane that depended on SH3/SH3 binding domain interactions. DHHC6 knockdown using shRNA in stably transfected cell lines led to decreased expression of the IP3R and impaired IP3R-dependent Ca(2+) flux. Mass spectrophotometric and bioinformatic analyses of the IP3R protein identified two palmitoylated cysteine residues and another potentially palmitoylated cysteine, and mutation of these three cysteines to alanines resulted in decreased IP3R palmitoylation and function. These findings reveal IP3R palmitoylation as a critical regulator of Ca(2+) flux in immune cells and define a previously unidentified DHHC/Selk complex responsible for this process.

Increasing dietary selenium elevates reducing capacity and ERK activation associated with accelerated progression of select mesothelioma tumors.

To study the effect of the micronutrient selenium on malignant mesothelioma (MM) progression, we cultured four different MM cell lines in media containing increasing amounts of sodium selenite (30, 50, and 80 nmol/L). Increasing selenium levels increased density-dependent proliferation and mobility for CRH5 and EKKH5 but not AB12 and AK7. Comparing these cell lines revealed that extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation was sensitive to a selenium increase in CRH5 and EKKH5 but not AB12 and AK7 cells. Stable expression of a dominant-negative mutant ERK eliminated the effects of increasing selenium. Because ERK is redox sensitive, we compared the MM cell lines in terms of glutathione levels and the capacity to reduce exogenous hydrogen peroxide. Increasing selenium levels led to higher glutathione and reducing capacity in CRH5 and EKKH5 but not AB12 and AK7. The reducing agent N-acetylcysteine eliminated the effects of selenium on ERK activation, proliferation, and mobility. Mice fed diets containing increasing levels of selenium (0.08, 0.25, and 1.0 ppm) showed increased tumor progression for CRH5 but not AB12, MM cells, and in vivo N-acetylcysteine treatment eliminated these effects. These data suggest that the effects of dietary selenium on MM tumor progression depend on the arising cancer cells' redox metabolism, and the tumors able to convert increased selenium into a stronger reducing capacity actually benefit from increased selenium intake.

Calpastatin prevents NF-κB-mediated hyperactivation of macrophages and attenuates colitis.

Calpain enzymes proteolytically modulate cellular function and have been implicated in inflammatory diseases. In this study, we found that calpain levels did not differ between intestinal tissues from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients and healthy controls, but IBD tissues showed increased levels of the endogenous calpain inhibitor, calpastatin (CAST). To investigate the role of CAST in the immune system during IBD, mice were x-ray irradiated, reconstituted with either CAST-knockout (KO) or wild-type (WT) bone marrow, and subjected to dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis. CAST-KO recipients with induced colitis exhibited more severe weight loss, bloody diarrhea, and anemia compared with WT controls. Histological evaluation of colons from KO recipients with colitis revealed increased inflammatory pathology. Macrophages purified from the colons of KO recipients had higher IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ mRNA levels compared with WT controls. Mechanistic investigations using small interfering RNA and KO bone marrow to generate CAST-deficient macrophages showed that CAST deficiency during activation with bacterial pathogen associated molecular patterns, including heat-killed Enterococcus faecalis or CpG DNA, led to increased IκB cleavage, NF-κB nuclear localization, and IL-6 and TNF-α secretion. Thus, CAST plays a central role in regulating macrophage activation and limiting pathology during inflammatory disorders like IBD.

Upregulated selenoprotein I during lipopolysaccharide-induced B cell activation promotes lipidomic changes and is required for effective differentiation into IgM-secreting plasma B cells.

The mechanisms driving metabolic reprogramming during B cell activation are unclear, particularly roles for enzymatic pathways involved in lipid remodeling. We found that murine B cell activation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) led to a 1.6-fold increase in total lipids that included higher levels of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and plasmenyl PE. Selenoprotein I (SELENOI) is an ethanolamine phospholipid transferase involved in the synthesis of both PE and plasmenyl PE, and SELENOI expression was also upregulated during activation. Selenoi knockout (KO) B cells exhibited decreased levels of plasmenyl PE, which plays an important antioxidant role. Lipid peroxidation was measured and found to increase ∼2-fold in KO vs. wild-type (WT) B cells. Cell death was not impacted by KO in LPS-treated B cells and proliferation was only slightly reduced, but differentiation into CD138 + Blimp-1+ plasma B cells was decreased ∼2-fold. This led to examination of B cell receptors important for differentiation that recognize the ligand B cell activating factor, and levels of TACI (transmembrane activator, calcium-modulator, and cytophilin ligand interactor) (CD267) were significantly decreased on KO B cells compared with WT control cells. Vaccination with ovalbumin/adjuvant led to decreased ovalbumin-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels in sera of KO mice compared with WT mice. Real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses revealed a decreased switch from surface to secreted IgM in spleens of KO mice induced by vaccination or LP-BM5 retrovirus infection. Overall, these findings detail the lipidomic response of B cells to LPS activation and reveal the importance of upregulated SELENOI for promoting differentiation into IgM-secreting plasma B cells.

Bone Marrow-Derived ABCC6 Is an Essential Regulator of Ectopic Calcification In Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum.

Physiological calcification of soft tissues is a common occurrence in aging and various acquired and inherited disorders. ABCC6 sequence variations cause the calcification phenotype of pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE) as well as some cases of generalized arterial calcification of infancy, which is otherwise caused by defective ENPP1. ABCC6 is primarily expressed in the liver, which has given the impression that the liver is central to the pathophysiology of PXE/generalized arterial calcification of infancy. The emergence of inflammation as a contributor to the calcification in PXE suggested that peripheral tissues play a larger role than expected. In this study, we investigated whether bone marrow-derived ABCC6 contributes to the calcification in PXE. In Abcc6‒/‒ mice, we observed prevalent mineralization in several lymph nodes and surrounding connective tissues and an extensive network of lymphatic vessels within vibrissae, a calcified tissue in Abcc6‒/‒ mice. Furthermore, we found evidence of lymphangiogenesis in patients with PXE and mouse skin, suggesting an inflammatory process. Finally, restoring wild-type bone marrow in Abcc6‒/‒ mice produced a significant reduction of calcification, suggesting that the liver alone is not sufficient to fully inhibit mineralization. With evidence that ABCC6 is expressed in lymphocytes, we suggest that the adaptative immune system and inflammation largely contribute to the calcification in PXE/generalized arterial calcification of infancy.

Stimulation of unprimed macrophages with immune complexes triggers a low output of nitric oxide by calcium-dependent neuronal nitric-oxide synthase.

Immune complexes composed of IgG-opsonized pathogens, particles, or proteins are phagocytosed by macrophages through Fcγ receptors (FcγRs). Macrophages primed with IFNγ or other pro-inflammatory mediators respond to FcγR engagement by secreting high levels of cytokines and nitric oxide (NO). We found that unprimed macrophages produced lower levels of NO, which required efficient calcium (Ca(2+)) flux as demonstrated by using macrophages lacking selenoprotein K, which is required for FcγR-induced Ca(2+) flux. Thus, we further investigated the signaling pathways involved in low output NO and its functional significance. Evaluation of inducible, endothelial, and neuronal nitric-oxide synthases (iNOS, eNOS, and nNOS) revealed that FcγR stimulation in unprimed macrophages caused a marked Ca(2+)-dependent increase in both total and phosphorylated nNOS and slightly elevated levels of phosphorylated eNOS. Also activated were three MAP kinases, ERK, JNK, and p38, of which ERK activation was highly dependent on Ca(2+) flux. Inhibition of ERK reduced both nNOS activation and NO secretion. Finally, Transwell experiments showed that FcγR-induced NO functioned to increase the phagocytic capacity of other macrophages and required both NOS and ERK activity. The production of NO by macrophages is conventionally attributed to iNOS, but we have revealed an iNOS-independent receptor/enzyme system in unprimed macrophages that produces low output NO. Under these conditions, FcγR engagement relies on Ca(2+)-dependent ERK phosphorylation, which in turn increases nNOS and, to a lesser extent, eNOS, both of which produce low levels of NO that function to promote phagocytosis.

Fowlpox-based survivin vaccination for malignant mesothelioma therapy.

Survivin protein is an attractive candidate for cancer immunotherapy since it is abundantly expressed in most common human cancers and mostly absent in normal adult tissues. Malignant mesothelioma (MM) is a deadly cancer associated with asbestos or erionite exposure for which no successful therapies are currently available. In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of a novel survivin-based vaccine by subcutaneous or intraperitoneum injection of BALB/c mice with murine fiber-induced MM tumor cells followed by vaccination with recombinant Fowlpox virus replicons encoding survivin. Vaccination generated significant immune responses in both models, leading to delayed tumor growth and improved animal survival. Flow cytometry and immunofluorescence analyses of tumors from vaccinated mice showed CD8(+) T-cell infiltration, and real-time PCR demonstrated increased mRNA and protein levels of immunostimulatory cytokines. Analyses of survivin peptide-pulsed spleen and lymph node cells from vaccinated mice using ELISPOT and intracellular cytokine staining confirmed antigen-specific, interferon-γ-producing CD8(+) T-cell responses. In addition pentamer-based flow cytometry showed that vaccination generated survivin-specific CD8(+) T cells. Importantly, vaccination did not affect fertility or induce autoimmune abnormalities in mice. Our results demonstrate that vaccination with recombinant Fowlpox expressing survivin improves T-cell responses against aggressive MM tumors and may form the basis for promising clinical applications.

Selenoprotein K knockout mice exhibit deficient calcium flux in immune cells and impaired immune responses.

Selenoprotein K (Sel K) is a selenium-containing protein for which no function has been identified. We found that Sel K is an endoplasmic reticulum transmembrane protein expressed at relatively high levels in immune cells and is regulated by dietary selenium. Sel K(-/-) mice were generated and found to be similar to wild-type controls regarding growth and fertility. Immune system development was not affected by Sel K deletion, but specific immune cell defects were found in Sel K(-/-) mice. Receptor-mediated Ca(2+) flux was decreased in T cells, neutrophils, and macrophages from Sel K(-/-) mice compared with controls. Ca(2+)-dependent functions including T cell proliferation, T cell and neutrophil migration, and Fcγ receptor-mediated oxidative burst in macrophages were decreased in cells from Sel K(-/-) mice compared with that in cells from controls. West Nile virus infections were performed, and Sel K(-/-) mice exhibited decreased viral clearance in the periphery and increased viral titers in brain. Furthermore, West Nile virus-infected Sel K(-/-) mice demonstrated significantly lower survival (2 of 23; 8.7%) compared with that of wild-type controls (10 of 26; 38.5%). These results establish Sel K as an endoplasmic reticulum-membrane protein important for promoting effective Ca(2+) flux during immune cell activation and provide insight into molecular mechanisms by which dietary selenium enhances immune responses.

Freeze-dried targeted mannosylated selenium-loaded nanoliposomes: development and evaluation.

The aim of this investigation was to develop and evaluate freeze-dried mannosylated liposomes for the targeted delivery of selenium. Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, distearoylphosphatidylglycerol, and cholesterol were dissolved in a chloroform and methanol mixture and allowed to form a thin film within a rotatory evaporator. This thin film was hydrated with a sodium selenite (5.8 µM) solution to form multilamellar vesicles and homogenized under high pressure to yield unilamellar nanoliposomes. Se-loaded nanoliposomes were mannosylated by 0.1% w/v mannosamine (Man-Lip-Se) prior to being lyophilized. Mannosamine concentration was optimized with cellular uptake studies in M receptor expressing cells. Non-lyophilized and lyophilized Man-Lip-Se were characterized for size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency. The influence of liposomal composition on the characteristics of Man-Lip-Se were evaluated using acidic and basic medium for 24 h. Thermal analysis and powder X-ray diffraction were used to determine the interaction of components within the Man-Lip-Se. The size, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency of the optimum Man-Lip-Se were observed to be 158 ± 28.9 nm, 33.21 ± 0.89 mV, and 77.27 ± 2.34%, respectively. An in vitro Se release of 70-75% up to 24 h in PBS pH 6.8 and <8% Se release in acidic media (0.1 N HCl) in 1 h was observed. The Man-Lip-Se were found to withstand gastric-like environments and showed sustained release. Stable freeze-dried Man-Lip-Se were successfully formulated with a size of <200 nm, ≈ 75% entrapment, and achieved controlled release of Se with stability under acidic media, which may be of importance in the targeted delivery of Se to the immune system.