Anti-CD40L immune complexes potently activate platelets in vitro and cause thrombosis in FCGR2A transgenic mice.

Anti-CD40L immunotherapy in systemic lupus erythematosus patients was associated with thromboembolism of unknown cause. We previously showed that monoclonal anti-CD40L immune complexes (ICs) activated platelets in vitro via the IgG receptor (FcgammaRIIa). In this study, we examined the prothrombotic effects of anti-CD40L ICs in vivo. Because mouse platelets lack FcgammaRIIa, we used FCGR2A transgenic mice. FCGR2A mice were injected i.v. with preformed ICs consisting of either anti-human CD40L mAb (M90) plus human CD40L, or a chimerized anti-mouse CD40L mAb (hMR1) plus mouse CD40L. ICs containing an aglycosylated form of hMR1, which does not bind FcgammaRIIa, were also injected. M90 IC caused shock and thrombocytopenia in FCGR2A but not in wild-type mice. Animals injected with hMR1 IC also experienced these effects, whereas those injected with aglycosylated-hMR1 IC did not, demonstrating that anti-CD40L IC-induced platelet activation in vivo is FcgammaRIIa-dependent. Sequential injections of individual IC components caused similar effects, suggesting that ICs were able to assemble in circulation. Analysis of IC-injected mice revealed pulmonary thrombi consisting of platelet aggregates and fibrin. Mice pretreated with a thrombin inhibitor became moderately thrombocytopenic in response to anti-CD40L ICs and had pulmonary platelet-thrombi devoid of fibrin. In conclusion, we have shown for the first time that anti-CD40L IC-induced thrombosis can be replicated in mice transgenic for FcgammaRIIa. This molecular mechanism may be important for understanding thrombosis associated with CD40L immunotherapy. The FCGR2A mouse model may also be useful for assessing the hemostatic safety of other therapeutic Abs.

Pan-neutralizing, germline-encoded antibodies against SARS-CoV-2: Addressing the long-term problem of escape variants.

Despite the initially reported high efficacy of vaccines directed against ancestral SARS-CoV-2, repeated infections in both unvaccinated and vaccinated populations remain a major global health challenge. Because of mutation-mediated immune escape by variants-of-concern (VOC), approved neutralizing antibodies (neutAbs) effective against the original strains have been rendered non-protective. Identification and characterization of mutation-independent pan-neutralizing antibody responses are therefore essential for controlling the pandemic. Here, we characterize and discuss the origins of SARS-CoV-2 neutAbs, arising from either natural infection or following vaccination. In our study, neutAbs in COVID-19 patients were detected using the combination of two lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) tests, corroborated by plaque reduction neutralization testing (PRNT). A point-of-care neutAb LFIA, NeutraXpress™, was validated using serum samples from historical pre-COVID-19 negative controls, patients infected with other respiratory pathogens, and PCR-confirmed COVID-19 patients. Surprisingly, potent neutAb activity was mainly noted in patients generating both IgM and IgG against the Spike receptor-binding domain (RBD), in contrast to samples possessing anti-RBD IgG alone. We propose that low-affinity, high-avidity, germline-encoded natural IgM and subsequent generation of class-switched IgG may have an underappreciated role in cross-protection, potentially offsetting immune escape by SARS-CoV-2 variants. We suggest Reverse Vaccinology 3.0 to further exploit this innate-like defense mechanism. Our proposition has potential implications for immunogen design, and provides strategies to elicit pan-neutAbs from natural B1-like cells. Refinements in future immunization protocols might further boost long-term cross-protection, even at the mucosal level, against clinical manifestations of COVID-19.

An active CD8alpha/pMHCI interaction is required for CD8 single positive thymocyte differentiation.

Recognition of viral antigenic peptides bound to major histocompatibility complex class I molecules (MHCI) by TCR is critical for initiating the responses of CD8(+) T cells that ultimately lead to elimination of virus-infected cells. This antigen recognition is enhanced by the CD8 coreceptor through its interaction with the peptide-MHCI complexes (pMHCI). Mouse CD8alphabeta can form two different complexes with pMHCI via either the CD8alpha- or CD8beta-dominated interaction. To understand the functional significance of these complexes in vivo, we generated Tg mice carrying a variant CD8alphabeta (CD8alpha(m3)beta) capable of forming only the CD8beta-dominated CD8alphabeta/pMHCI complex. These mice show sub-optimal thymic differentiation with reduced populations of CD8(+) single-positive thymocytes. Tg CD8(+) T cells exhibit a compromised developmental capacity when competing with CD8(+) T cells from B6 mice in mixed bone marrow chimera experiments. However, once these CD8(+) T cells have emigrated to the peripheral lymphoid organs, they exhibit normal effector function against viral infection. Our observations indicate that, in addition to the CD8 activity conferred by CD8beta-dominated CD8alphabeta/pMHCI complexes, full thymocyte differentiation requires additional coreceptor activities conferred by CD8alphaalpha and/or CD8alphabeta with CD8alpha-dominated CD8/pMHCI complexes.

A novel role for tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) in the development of cardiac dysfunction and failure.

BACKGROUND: Tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK), a member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily, is a multifunctional cytokine known to regulate cellular functions in contexts of injury and disease through its receptor, fibroblast growth factor-inducible molecule 14 (Fn14). Although many of the processes and downstream signals regulated by the TWEAK/Fn14 pathway have been implicated in the development of cardiac dysfunction, the role of TWEAK in the cardiovascular system is completely unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: Herein, we demonstrate that mouse and human cardiomyocytes express the TWEAK receptor Fn14. Furthermore, we determine that elevated circulating levels of TWEAK, induced via transgenic or adenoviral-mediated gene expression in mice, result in dilated cardiomyopathy with subsequent severe cardiac dysfunction. This phenotype was mediated exclusively by the Fn14 receptor, independent of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and was associated with cardiomyocyte elongation and cardiac fibrosis but not cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Moreover, we find that circulating TWEAK levels were differentially upregulated in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy compared with other forms of heart disease and normal control subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that TWEAK/Fn14 may be important in regulating myocardial structural remodeling and function and may play a role in the pathogenesis of dilated cardiomyopathy.

Development and validation of a noninvasive method to estimate cardiac output using cuff sphygmomanometry.

BACKGROUND: Obtaining cardiac output (CO) measurements noninvasively during routine blood pressure recording can improve hypertension management. A new method has been developed that estimates cardiac output using pulse-waveform analysis (PWA) from a brachial cuff sphygmomanometer. This study evaluates the ability of PWA to track changes in CO as derived by Doppler ultrasound during dobutamine stimulation. HYPOTHESIS: This study aims to validate the PWA CO estimation over a wide CO range as would be obtained by dobutamine stimulation during Doppler ultrasound evaluation. METHOD: A total of 48 patients undergoing standard dobutamine stress echocardiography testing for accepted clinical indications were enrolled. Among them, 44 patients (age 36-83, 18 females, 26 males) with good waveform data for analyses provided estimates of CO in this study. Noninvasive measurements of CO were performed using both Doppler ultrasound recordings and PWA techniques simultaneously at each stage of dobutamine infusion. RESULTS: A total of 207 simultaneous pulse-waveform analyses and Doppler measurements were taken during dobutamine stress on 44 cardiac patients. Linear regression analysis revealed good intra-patient correlation between pulse-waveform analysis and Doppler at different dobutamine-induced CO with coefficients from r = 0.69 to 0.98 (p < 0.05). Analysis of all patients yielded an overall correlation of r = 0.82 (p < 0.001, bias = 0.4 L/min, standard deviation = 1.8 L/min). CONCLUSION: The CO measured noninvasively from a sphygmomanometer using this PWA method correlates well with those of Doppler through a range of dobutamine-stimulated levels. The CO by PWA should be useful for monitoring hemodynamic changes in hypertensive and cardiac patients during routine blood pressure measurement.

Tweak induces mammary epithelial branching morphogenesis.

Members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily regulate cell survival and proliferation and have been implicated in cancer. Tweak (TNF-related weak inducer of apoptosis) has pleiotropic biological functions including proapoptotic, proangiogenic and proinflammatory activities. We explored a role for Tweak in mammary gland transformation using a three-dimensional model culture system. Tweak stimulates a branching morphogenic phenotype, similar to that induced by pro-oncogenic factors, in Eph4 mammary epithelial cells cultured in matrigel. Increased proliferation and invasiveness are observed, with a concomitant inhibition of functional differentiation. Levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) are significantly increased following Tweak treatment. Notably, MMP inhibitors are sufficient to block the branching phenotype induced by Tweak. The capacity to promote proliferation, inhibit differentiation and induce invasion suggests a role for Tweak in mammary gland tumorigenesis. Consistent with this, we have observed elevated protein levels of the Tweak receptor, Fn14, in human breast tumor cell lines and xenograft models as well as in primary human breast tumors. Together, our results suggest that the Tweak/Fn14 pathway may be protumorigenic in human breast cancer.

The biochemistry and biology of BAFF, APRIL and their receptors.

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family of related receptors and ligands contains a rich collection of molecules that are important players in a broad spectrum of biological systems. While several family members are critical for development and function of the immune system, providing both activation and death signals, other members are involved in nonimmunological functions as diverse as hair follicle formation. TNF homology searches during the past several years have led to the discovery of numerous novel ligands, two of which will be the focus of this review. BAFF, a cytokine responsible for B cell survival, has recently been the subject of intense investigation that has expanded our understanding of mature B cell genesis, and mechanisms involved in developing B cell pathologies. APRIL is a close relative of BAFF and while its biological roles are less well understood, it may have both immune and non-immune functions. Herein we will discuss the discovery, structure, cognate receptors and functions of these two proteins.

Crystal structure of extracellular human BAFF, a TNF family member that stimulates B lymphocytes.

B cell activating factor (BAFF), a ligand belonging to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family, plays a critical role in regulating survival and activation of peripheral B cell populations and has been associated with autoimmune disease. BAFF is known to interact with three receptors, BCMA, TACI and BAFF-R, that have distant similarities with other receptors of the TNF family. We have determined the crystal structure of the TNF-homologous domain of BAFF at 2.8 A resolution. The structure reveals significant differences when compared to other TNF family members, including an unusually long D-E loop that participates in the formation of a deep, concave and negatively charged region in the putative receptor binding site. The BAFF structure was further used to generate a homology model of APRIL, a closely related TNF family ligand that also binds to BCMA and TACI, but not BAFF-R. Analysis of the putative receptor binding sites of BAFF and APRIL suggests that differences in the D-E loop structure and electrostatic surface potentials may be important for determining binding specificities for BCMA, TACI and BAFF-R.

Variation in the ordered structure of complexes between CD154 and anti-CD154 monoclonal antibodies.

The cell surface co-stimulatory protein CD154 (CD40L) is a target for monoclonal antibody (mAb) inhibitors of T-cell mediated immune diseases. This protein, like most other members of the TNF ligand family, forms homotrimeric complexes on the cell surface and in solution, with a three-fold axis of symmetry. We find that several different anti-CD154 monoclonal antibodies form distinctive complexes with soluble CD154. These soluble complexes have been analyzed using size exclusion chromatography, static and dynamic light scattering, and electron microscopy and shown to consist of caged structures of various geometries. The cell surface complexes have been analyzed by confocal microscopy and, depending on the mAb, remain as small, separate complexes or form large aggregates. The formation of these complexes in solution is likely to have an impact on measures of affinity, while the cell surface complexes could affect binding potency and provoke other biological effects.

CDP7657, an anti-CD40L antibody lacking an Fc domain, inhibits CD40L-dependent immune responses without thrombotic complications: an in vivo study.

INTRODUCTION: CD40 ligand (CD40L) blockade has demonstrated efficacy in experimental autoimmune models. However, clinical trials of hu5c8, an anti-human CD40L IgG1 antibody, in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) were halted due to an increased incidence of thrombotic events. This study evaluated CDP7657, a high affinity PEGylated monovalent Fab' anti-CD40L antibody fragment, to assess whether an Fc-deficient molecule retains efficacy while avoiding the increased risk of thrombotic events observed with hu5c8. METHODS: The potency and cross-reactivity of CDP7657 was assessed in in vitro assays employing human and non-human primate leukocytes, and the capacity of different antibody formats to activate platelets in vitro was assessed using aggregometry and dense granule release assays. Given the important role CD40L plays in regulating humoral immunity, in vivo efficacy was assessed by investigating the capacity of Cynomolgus monkeys to generate immune responses to the tetanus toxoid antigen while the potential to induce thrombotic events in vivo was evaluated after repeat dosing of antibodies to Rhesus monkeys. A PEGylated anti-mouse CD40L was generated to assess efficacy in the New Zealand Black/White (NZB/W) mouse model of SLE. RESULTS: CDP7657 dose-dependently inhibited antigen-specific immune responses to tetanus toxoid in Cynomolgus monkeys, and in contrast to hu5c8, there was no evidence of pulmonary thrombovasculopathy in Rhesus monkeys. Aglycosyl hu5c8, which lacks Fc receptor binding function, also failed to induce thrombotic events in Rhesus monkeys. In vitro experiments confirmed that antibody constructs lacking an Fc, including CDP7657, did not induce human or monkey platelet activation. A PEGylated monovalent Fab' anti-mouse CD40L antibody also inhibited disease activity in the NZB/W mouse model of SLE after administration using a therapeutic dosing regimen where mice received antibodies only after they had displayed severe proteinuria. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate for the first time that anti-CD40L antibodies lacking a functional Fc region do not induce thrombotic events in Rhesus monkeys and fail to activate platelets in vitro but, nevertheless retain pharmacological activity and support the investigation of CDP7657 as a potential therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus and other autoimmune diseases.

Aberrant expression of functional BAFF-system receptors by malignant B-cell precursors impacts leukemia cell survival.

Despite exhibiting oncogenic events, patient's leukemia cells are responsive and dependent on signals from their malignant bone marrow (BM) microenvironment, which modulate their survival, cell cycle progression, trafficking and resistance to chemotherapy. Identification of the signaling pathways mediating this leukemia/microenvironment interplay is critical for the development of novel molecular targeted therapies.We observed that primary leukemia B-cell precursors aberrantly express receptors of the BAFF-system, BAFF-R, BCMA, and TACI. These receptors are functional as their ligation triggers activation of NF-κB, MAPK/JNK, and Akt signaling. Leukemia cells express surface BAFF and APRIL ligands, and soluble BAFF is significantly higher in leukemia patients in comparison to age-matched controls. Interestingly, leukemia cells also express surface APRIL, which seems to be encoded by APRIL-δ, a novel isoform that lacks the furin convertase domain. Importantly, we observed BM microenvironmental cells express the ligands BAFF and APRIL, including surface and secreted BAFF by BM endothelial cells. Functional studies showed that signals through BAFF-system receptors impact the survival and basal proliferation of leukemia B-cell precursors, and support the involvement of both homotypic and heterotypic mechanisms.This study shows an unforeseen role for the BAFF-system in the biology of precursor B-cell leukemia, and suggests that the target disruption of BAFF signals may constitute a valid strategy for the treatment of this cancer.

Development of an Fn14 agonistic antibody as an anti-tumor agent.

TWEAK, a TNF family ligand with pleiotropic cellular functions, was originally described as capable of inducing tumor cell death in vitro. TWEAK functions by binding its receptor, Fn14, which is up-regulated on many human solid tumors. Herein, we show that intratumoral administration of TWEAK, delivered either by an adenoviral vector or in an immunoglobulin Fc-fusion form, results in significant inhibition of tumor growth in a breast xenograft model. To exploit the TWEAK-Fn14 pathway as a therapeutic target in oncology, we developed an anti-Fn14 agonistic antibody, BIIB036. Studies described herein show that BIIB036 binds specifically to Fn14 but not other members of the TNF receptor family, induces Fn14 signaling, and promotes tumor cell apoptosis in vitro. In vivo, BIIB036 effectively inhibits growth of tumors in multiple xenograft models, including colon (WiDr), breast (MDA-MB-231), and gastric (NCI-N87) tumors, regardless of tumor cell growth inhibition response observed to BIIB036 in vitro. The anti-tumor activity in these cell lines is not TNF-dependent. Increasing the antigen-binding valency of BIB036 significantly enhances its anti-tumor effect, suggesting the contribution of higher order cross-linking of the Fn14 receptor. Full Fc effector function is required for maximal activity of BIIB036 in vivo, likely due to the cross-linking effect and/or ADCC mediated tumor killing activity. Taken together, the anti-tumor properties of BIIB036 validate Fn14 as a promising target in oncology and demonstrate its potential therapeutic utility in multiple solid tumor indications.

Antagonism of TIM-1 blocks the development of disease in a humanized mouse model of allergic asthma.

Studies in mice and humans have revealed that the T cell, immunoglobulin, mucin (TIM) genes are associated with several atopic diseases. TIM-1 is a type I membrane protein that is expressed on T cells upon stimulation and has been shown to modulate their activation. In addition to a recently described interaction with dendritic cells, TIM-1 has also been identified as a phosphatidylserine recognition molecule, and several protein ligands have been proposed. Our understanding of its activity is complicated by the possibility that TIM-1 possesses multiple and diverse binding partners. In order to delineate the function of TIM-1, we generated monoclonal antibodies directed to a cleft formed within the IgV domain of TIM-1. We have shown here that antibodies that bind to this defined cleft antagonize TIM-1 binding to specific ligands and cells. Notably, these antibodies exhibited therapeutic activity in a humanized SCID model of experimental asthma, ameliorating inflammation, and airway hyperresponsiveness. Further experiments demonstrated that the effects of the TIM-1-specific antibodies were mediated via suppression of Th2 cell proliferation and cytokine production. These results demonstrate that modulation of the TIM-1 pathway can critically influence activated T cells in a humanized disease model, suggesting that TIM-1 antagonists may provide potent therapeutic benefit in asthma and other immune-mediated disorders.

CD8alphabeta has two distinct binding modes of interaction with peptide-major histocompatibility complex class I.

Interaction of CD8 (CD8alphaalpha or CD8alphabeta) with the peptide-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I (pMHCI) is critical for the development and function of cytolytic T cells. Although the crystal structure of CD8alphaalpha.pMHCI complex revealed that two symmetric CD8alpha subunits interact with pMHCI asymmetrically, with one subunit engaged in more extensive interaction than the other, the details of the interaction between the CD8alphabeta heterodimer and pMHCI remained unknown. The Ig-like domains of mouse CD8alphabeta and CD8alphaalpha are similar in the size, shape, and surface electrostatic potential of their pMHCI-binding regions, suggesting that their interactions with pMHCI could be very similar. Indeed, we found that the CD8alpha variants CD8alpha(R8A) and CD8alpha(E27A), which were functionally inactive as homodimers, could form an active co-receptor with wild-type (WT) CD8beta as a CD8alpha(R8A)beta or CD8alpha(E27A)beta heterodimer. We also identified CD8beta variants that could form active receptors with WT CD8alpha but not with CD8alpha(R8A). This observation is consistent with the notion that the CD8beta subunit may replace either CD8alpha subunit in CD8alphaalpha.pMHCI complex. In addition, we showed that both anti-CD8alpha and anti-CD8beta antibodies were unable to completely block the co-receptor activity of WT CD8alphabeta. We propose that CD8alphabeta binds to pMHCI in at least two distinguishable orientations.

TWEAK, via its receptor Fn14, is a novel regulator of mesenchymal progenitor cells and skeletal muscle regeneration.

Inflammation participates in tissue repair through multiple mechanisms including directly regulating the cell fate of resident progenitor cells critical for successful regeneration. Upon surveying target cell types of the TNF ligand TWEAK, we observed that TWEAK binds to all progenitor cells of the mesenchymal lineage and induces NF-kappaB activation and the expression of pro-survival, pro-proliferative and homing receptor genes in the mesenchymal stem cells, suggesting that this pro-inflammatory cytokine may play an important role in controlling progenitor cell biology. We explored this potential using both the established C2C12 cell line and primary mouse muscle myoblasts, and demonstrated that TWEAK promoted their proliferation and inhibited their terminal differentiation. By generating mice deficient in the TWEAK receptor Fn14, we further showed that Fn14-deficient primary myoblasts displayed significantly reduced proliferative capacity and altered myotube formation. Following cardiotoxin injection, a known trigger for satellite cell-driven skeletal muscle regeneration, Fn14-deficient mice exhibited reduced inflammatory response and delayed muscle fiber regeneration compared with wild-type mice. These results indicate that the TWEAK/Fn14 pathway is a novel regulator of skeletal muscle precursor cells and illustrate an important mechanism by which inflammatory cytokines influence tissue regeneration and repair. Coupled with our recent demonstration that TWEAK potentiates liver progenitor cell proliferation, the expression of Fn14 on all mesenchymal lineage progenitor cells supports a broad involvement of this pathway in other tissue injury and disease settings.

Selectivity of BAFF/BLyS and APRIL for binding to the TNF family receptors BAFFR/BR3 and BCMA.

BAFF (B cell activating factor of the TNF family, also known as BlyS and TALL-1), a TNF family cytokine critical for the development and function of B cells, has been reported to bind to three receptors, BCMA (B cell maturation protein), TACI (transmembrane activator and CAML [calcium-modulator and cyclophilin ligand] interactor), and BAFFR (BAFF receptor), but with widely conflicting values for the affinity and selectivity of binding. BCMA and TACI additionally bind APRIL (a proliferation-inducing ligand), the TNF family ligand most homologous to BAFF. Using soluble, monomeric forms of the receptors, we demonstrate that BAFFR binds BAFF with K(D) approximately 16 nM, while BCMA binds with K(D) approximately 1.6 microM, indicating a approximately 100-fold selectivity for binding to BAFFR over BCMA. APRIL shows the opposite selectivity, binding to BCMA with K(D) approximately 16 nM while showing no detectable affinity for BAFFR (K(D) > 3 microM). The binding of BAFF or APRIL to these receptors is highly sensitive to assay-dependent avidity effects, likely explaining the widely ranging affinity values reported in the literature. Binding of BAFF to BCMA-Fc, a bivalent fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of BCMA fused to the hinge and CH1 and CH2 domains of human IgG1, in solution or coated onto an ELISA plate gave apparent binding affinities of approximately 0.63 and approximately 0.15 nM, respectively, compared to values of K(D(app))

BAFF supports human B cell differentiation in the lymphoid follicles through distinct receptors.

B cell-activating factor of the tumor necrosis factor family (BAFF/BLys) plays a critical role in B cell survival and immune responses through its three receptors: BAFF receptor (BAFF-R/BR3), transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI) and B cell maturation antigen (BCMA). Using specific antibodies, we have investigated the expression of BAFF-R on human tonsillar B cells and their functional roles in naive and germinal center (GC) B cell differentiation. Our studies show that BAFF-R is the dominant receptor on naive B cells. However, three receptors are differentially modulated during in vitro GC-B cell differentiation. BAFF-R expression increased initially and then decreased with a corresponding induction of TACI and BCMA expression during differentiation to plasma cells (PCs). Consistently, blocking of BAFF-R alone with specific mAb inhibited GC-B cell proliferation and PC generation in the early period of their differentiation, whereas depletion of BAFF with TACI-Ig exhibited consistent inhibition throughout the differentiation. Finally, histological and molecular analyses of human tonsil tissue revealed that follicular dendritic cells produce BAFF. In conclusion, BAFF in the GC plays an important role through more than one receptor, and the three known receptors are differentially modulated as GC-B cells differentiate to PCs.

BAFF: B cell survival factor and emerging therapeutic target for autoimmune disorders.

The prevailing treatment strategies for autoimmune disorders employ global immunosuppressants that have harmful side effects with long-term use. A new vision for drug development relies on the generation of therapeutics that have specific and narrow targets, such as pathogenic cell populations. The cellular processes that initiate and maintain B cell dysregulation are not well understood and autoimmune disease results, in part, from the survival and activation of self-reactive B cells. Such B cells produce tissue-damaging pathogenic autoantibodies. BAFF (B cell-activating factor belonging to the TNF family), a member of the TNF family of ligands, may play a role in B cell-mediated diseases. BAFF is a survival factor for peripheral B cells. When BAFF is overexpressed in mice, B cell number and immunoglobulin production is increased and an autoimmune-like phenotype is observed. Mouse models of lupus-nephritis have been shown to exhibit increased serum BAFF levels correlating with disease severity, and many autoimmune patients were found to have higher levels of circulating BAFF than healthy volunteers. Thus, modulating the level and activity of BAFF in these patients may alleviate symptoms associated with their disease. Several potential therapeutic inhibitors targeting BAFF are under investigation, including an anti-BAFF antibody and receptor-Fc fusion proteins.

Murine peptidoglycan recognition proteins PglyrpIalpha and PglyrpIbeta are encoded in the epidermal differentiation complex and are expressed in epidermal and hematopoietic tissues.

Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs or PGLYRPs) are pattern recognition molecules that are found in insects and mammals and are critical for innate immune responses. PGRPs bind peptidoglycan, a ubiquitous component of bacterial cell walls, and are involved in killing bacteria, degrading peptidoglycan, and initiating host defense reactions. Relatively little is known about the four mammalian PGRPs. In this article, we report the sequences of mouse PglyrpIalpha and PglyrpIbeta and provide details of their expression in wild-type mouse tissues. PglyrpIalpha and PglyrpIbeta are encoded within the epidermal differentiation complex on mouse chromosome 3F. Both genes are expressed in epidermal and hematopoietic tissues. PglyrpIbeta is expressed in each of 16 tissues tested, while PglyrpIalpha expression is limited to fewer tissues, including the lung and spleen as well as several tissues of the digestive system. Both proteins are expressed in epithelial cells throughout the gut, and immunohistochemical staining shows expression in salivary glands, the squamous epithelium of the stomach, and the villi of the jejunum. Immunohistochemical staining further shows expression of both PglyrpIalpha and PglyrpIbeta in macrophages in the spleen. PglyrpIalpha is not expressed in resting RAW264.7 macrophage-like cells, but is induced by stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. PglyrpIbeta is constitutively expressed in RAW264.7 cells and is unaffected by lipopolysaccharide or peptidoglycan stimulation. Computational and experimental data suggest that these proteins are secreted. This work provides a step toward understanding the roles of PglyrpIalpha and PglyrpIbeta in host defense and chronic inflammatory conditions induced by bacteria or their components.

CD40 ligand (CD154) does not contribute to lymphocyte-mediated inhibition of virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis within human monocytes.

Human monocytes displayed increased expression of CD40 following infection with virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nevertheless, soluble CD40 ligand (CD40L; also designated CD154) had no effect on the intracellular growth of the organism. Restriction of the intracellular growth of M. tuberculosis by peripheral blood lymphocytes and antigen-specific CD4+ T-cell lines likewise was not reduced by blocking anti-CD40L monoclonal antibody 5c8.