Impact of surgical preparatory rinses with isopropyl alcohol or water on perioperative body temperature in pediatric female dogs and cats.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the effects of presurgical preparation with an isopropyl alcohol or water rinse on the perioperative rectal temperature (RT) of puppies and kittens. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized clinical trial. ANIMALS: A total of 48 intact female mixed breed puppies and 43 intact female Domestic Short Hair kittens aged 8-18 weeks. METHODS: All animals were premedicated with intramuscular buprenorphine (0.02 mg kg-1) and acepromazine (0.05 mg kg-1). Anesthesia was induced with intravenous propofol (4 mg kg-1 to effect) for puppies or ketamine (5 mg kg-1) and midazolam (0.25 mg kg-1) for kittens. RT was measured every minute for the first 15 minutes at the beginning of hair/fur removal, then every 5 minutes for 45 minutes (dogs) and 35 minutes (cats). All animals were prepared for surgery using a 1.6% chlorhexidine solution, then rinsed with either isopropyl alcohol (group CA) or water (group CW). RESULTS: Mean RT difference between the groups was not significant at any time point. The mean RT at 45 minutes for dogs was 35.9 °C and 36.0 °C in groups CA and CW, respectively (p = 0.74). The mean RT at 35 minutes for cats was 35.1 °C in both groups (p = 0.84). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The use of either water or alcohol as a rinsing agent results in the same degree of perioperative temperature change. Other factors that contribute to perioperative hypothermia should be considered when choosing between these rinsing agents in surgical preparation of pediatric and small animals.

SURVEY OF ANTITUBERCULOSIS DRUG ADMINISTRATION AND ADVERSE EFFECTS IN ELEPHANTS IN NORTH AMERICA.

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is a disease causing morbidity and mortality in captive elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana) as well as free-ranging individuals. Elephants in North America diagnosed with tuberculosis are often treated with antituberculosis drugs, unlike livestock species, which has necessitated the development of treatment guidelines adapted from recommendations for humans. There are few published reports describing empirical treatment, which may be complicated by poor patient compliance, interruptions in drug administration, and adverse effects. A survey of elephants in North America was conducted to compile information on treatment protocols, including drugs, dosages, routes of administration, serum drug concentrations, and adverse effects of antituberculosis treatment. Responses were received regarding 182 elephants, 12 of which were treated prophylactically or therapeutically with antituberculosis drugs. Treatment protocols varied among elephants, and included various combinations of isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol, enrofloxacin, levofloxacin, and ethionamide. Serum drug concentrations also varied considerably among and within individuals. Facility staff reported 5 elephants (out of 7 treated elephants with responses) that exhibited clinical signs that may have been associated with antituberculosis drugs or treatment procedures. Anorexia, decreased water intake, constipation, depression, ataxia, limb paresis, and tremors were among the signs observed. Most adverse effects were reported to be moderate or severe, resulting in interruption of the treatment. The results from this survey provide veterinarians and elephant managers with valuable historical data to make informed clinical management decisions regarding antituberculosis therapy in elephants.

Establishing a Diagnostic Technique for Coelomocentesis in the Long-Spined Sea Urchin Diadema antillarum.

Coelomic fluid aspiration has been utilized in echinoderms in research and clinical settings. Detailed procedural descriptions for coelomic fluid sampling in sea urchins (class Echinoidea) are lacking, and samples are prone to contamination. The objectives of this study were to (1) standardize a technique for coelomic fluid collection in long-spined sea urchin Diadema antillarum that optimizes the diagnostic quality of the sample utilizing diagnostic imaging, (2) identify coelomic fluid bacterial isolates (using Biolog GEN III MicroLog and 16s rDNA sequencing), and (3) compare positive cultures to animal weight, holding time prior to sampling, water temperature, and gross fluid appearance. Seventy Diadema antillarum from the Florida Keys collected in two groups (March and September 2015) were utilized. Positive cultures for bacterial contamination were identified in 5% and 44%, respectively, of animals in the sampling groups. Vibrio spp. was the predominant genus identified. Positive cultures were more frequent in the group with smaller-sized animals, increased holding times, and elevated water temperatures. Deviation from clear-pink gross coelomic fluid appearance did not reliably predict bacterial contamination. A standardized technique for coelomocentesis was defined. The use of the proposed coelomocentesis methodology may facilitate improved health evaluations of sea urchins and may be applicable to research, conservation efforts, and disease investigations.

VITAL SIGNS AND FIRST OCCURRENCES IN NORMAL AND ABNORMAL NEWBORN ASIAN ELEPHANT ( ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) CALVES.

Sixteen years of medical records documenting 19 births within a herd of Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) at a private facility in the southeastern United States were reviewed. Of the 19 calves, 11 were normal at birth, requiring no additional veterinary care, and eight were abnormal, requiring veterinary care immediately or within the first week of birth. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate morphometrics, vital signs, and behavioral milestones in newborn calves both normal and abnormal. Blood work and urinalysis results from all calves were compared to values for adult elephants. Medical management of abnormal calves is described. All calves had faster heart rates and respiratory rates than did adult elephants, but rectal temperatures were the same. Calves were precocious with regard to sitting and standing but could be very slow to nurse. The most-common medical conditions of newborn calves were umbilical abnormalities and problems associated with nursing. Two calves required cardiopulmonary resuscitation after birth but made full recoveries. Some conditions were not apparent at birth but were recognized a few hours or days later. Following veterinary intervention, six of the eight calves made full recoveries, suggesting that early identification and treatment of problems can greatly decrease mortality. This is the first report of multiple veterinary and behavioral parameters in normal and abnormal neonatal Asian elephants from a facility with a calf survival rate above 90%. This information may be helpful to other elephant-holding facilities in providing care to their newborn elephant calves.

REPRODUCTIVE PARAMETERS AND BIRTH STATISTICS FOR A HERD OF ASIAN ELEPHANTS ( ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) IN NORTH AMERICA OVER A 20-YEAR PERIOD.

We reviewed medical records documenting 28 pregnancies occurring within a herd of Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) over a 20-yr (1994-2014) period at a private facility in the southeastern United States. Twenty-six pregnancies resulted in live calves and two ended in stillbirths. The 26 live births represented the offspring of 11 cows and 5 bulls. Twenty-four calves survived their first year, including two critically ill calves born after dystocias. Male and female calves occurred in almost equal numbers. Mean duration of labor in this group was 36 hr although the median duration was 13 hr. Although oxytocin was administered to several cows, parturition did not always immediately ensue. Female fecundity ranged from 1-6 calves while female age at parturition ranged from 9-46 yr. Females delivered their first calves between 9 and 26 yr of age whereas bulls sired their first calves in their 20s, on average. The number of live births and the 93% calf survival rate are among the highest reported in any western hemisphere elephant-holding facility. This may reflect the intensive management of cows before, during, and after each pregnancy, the number of experienced multiparous cows, and the skill level of staff, most of whom had worked with each other and with this herd for many years. The data presented here may assist facilities planning to breed Asian elephants.

ISONIAZID AND RIFAMPIN PHARMACOKINETICS IN TWO ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) INFECTED WITH MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS.

This report describes the pharmacokinetic profiles of chronically administered oral isoniazid and rifampin in one adult male and one adult female Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) that were asymptomatically infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Rifampin's half-life was reduced when compared to previous single-dose pharmacokinetic profiles of healthy uninfected Asian elephants. Both elephants experienced delayed absorption of isoniazid and rifampin as compared to previous pharmacokinetic studies in this species. The altered pharmacokinetics of both drugs in repeated-dosing clinical situations underscores the need for individual therapeutic drug monitoring for tuberculosis treatment.

Prenatal passive transfer of Mycobacterium tuberculosis antibodies in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves.

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) dams and their newborn calves were tested for Mycobacterium tuberculosis antibodies in serum. Blood was drawn from dams prior to calving and from calves on their day of birth. All six calves born to tuberculosis-reactive dams were also tuberculosis reactive, suggesting prenatal passive placental transfer of tuberculosis antibodies. In contrast, all three calves born to tuberculosis-nonreactive dams lacked detectable tuberculosis antibodies in pre-suckling or day-of-birth blood samples. Of the living tuberculosis-reactive calves observed from 1 to 11 yr of age, none exhibited clinical signs of tuberculosis infection or became tuberculosis culture positive. This is the first report of prenatal passive placental transfer of tuberculosis antibodies in elephants and demonstrates that detectible tuberculosis antibodies in newborn elephant calves should not be assumed to correlate with clinical tuberculosis.

EVALUATION OF A COMBINATION OF TILETAMINE-ZOLAZEPAM, MEDETOMIDINE, AND AZAPERONE WITH NASAL OXYGEN SUPPLEMENTATION FOR THE IMMOBILIZATION OF CAPTIVE CHACOAN PECCARIES (CATAGONUS WAGNERI) IN THE CHACO REGION OF PARAGUAY.

A combination of tiletamine-zolazepam, medetomidine, and azaperone was used to immobilize captive Chacoan peccaries (Catagonus wagneri) for health assessments and biological sample collection at the Centro Chaqueño para la Conservación e Investigación (CCCI) in the Paraguayan Chaco during July in 2017 and 2018. In total, 83 peccaries kept in 0.25-1.50 hectare enclosures were immobilized via dart-administered anesthetic. Mean animal weight was 33.89±3.74 kg (standard deviation; n=77). The mean intramuscular (IM) anesthetic drug and dosages were 0.03±0.00 mg/kg of medetomidine, 0.91±0.10 mg/kg of Zoletil 50 (tiletamine-zolazepam), and 0.30±0.03 mg/kg azaperone. The mean time to recumbency after darting was 6.07±2.65 min. The mean time to reach the anesthetic plane postdarting was 10.00±2.00 min. Muscle relaxation was adequate to allow minor veterinary procedures. A mean dosage of 0.15±0.02 mg/kg of atipamezole was given IM to reverse the medetomidine. Recoveries were smooth and animals were standing by 59.17±30.18 min postreversal. Full recovery and release back to enclosures occurred 90±30 min postreversal. A single dose of this drug combination provided adequate anesthesia for 88% of adult Chacoan peccaries; 12% needed a supplemental dose of tiletamine-zolazepam because of failure to receive the full dose from the anesthetic dart. Sex and age did not impact the dosage required to achieve immobilization. Confinement during recovery from anesthesia is required with this protocol. Aside from mild hypoxemia, no adverse effects from anesthesia were observed. However, oxygen supplementation as a part of this protocol is recommended to support circulatory and respiratory capacity.

Stabilization of juxta-physeal distal tibial and fibular fractures in a juvenile tiger using a hybrid circular-linear external fixator.

OBJECTIVE: To report stabilization of closed, comminuted distal metaphyseal transverse fractures of the left tibia and fibula in a tiger using a hybrid circular-linear external skeletal fixator. STUDY DESIGN: Clinical report. ANIMAL: Juvenile tiger (15 months, 90 kg). METHODS: From imaging studies, the tiger had comminuted distal metaphyseal transverse fractures of the left tibia and fibula, with mild caudolateral displacement and moderate compression. Multiple fissures extended from the fractures through the distal metaphyses, extending toward, but not involving the distal tibial and fibular physes. A hybrid circular-linear external skeletal fixator was applied by closed reduction, to stabilize the fractures. RESULTS: The fractures healed and the fixator was removed 5 weeks after stabilization. Limb length and alignment were similar to the normal contralateral limb at hospital discharge, 8 weeks after surgery. Two weeks later, the tiger had fractures of the right tibia and fibula and was euthanatized. Necropsy confirmed pathologic fractures ascribed to copper deficiency. CONCLUSION: Closed application of the hybrid construct provided sufficient stability to allow this 90 kg tiger's juxta-articular fractures to heal with minimal complications and without disrupting growth from the adjacent physes.

Periocular anterior adnexal anatomy and clinical adnexal examination of the adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).

Formalin preserved ocular-associated anterior adnexa tissues from five necropsied Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were dissected with attention to the palpebrae, conjunctiva, nictitating membranes, nasolacrimal ducts, and periocular glandular tissues. Gross and histologic examination revealed that lacrimal and tarsal glands were not present. Evidence of the lacrimal drainage apparatus, including lacrimal punctae or any remnant of lacrimal sacs, was also absent. In contrast, well-developed sebaceous glands associated with accessory hairs along the palpebrae were exceptionally abundant. Mixed-secreting accessory lacrimal glands were noted in the deep stroma posterior to the tarsus of both palpebrae and the gland of the nictitating membrane. Apparently, the Asian elephant has developed a novel tear system in the absence of lacrimal and tarsal (meibomian) glands. Clinical examinations and bacterial cultures of the visible periocular tissues were performed on eight living adult Asian elephants to confirm the postmortem anatomic findings and provide guidance to the clinician during examination of the elephant conjunctiva.

Strangulating intestinal obstructions in four captive elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana).

Three captive-born (5-day-old, 8-day-old, and 4-yr-old) Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and one captive-born 22-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) from three private elephant facilities and one zoo in the United States presented with depression, anorexia, and tachycardia as well as gastrointestinal signs of disease including abdominal distention, decreased borborygmi, tenesmus, hematochezia, or diarrhea. All elephants showed some evidence of discomfort including agitation, vocalization, or postural changes. One animal had abnormal rectal findings. Nonmotile bowel loops were seen on transabdominal ultrasound in another case. Duration of signs ranged from 6 to 36 hr. All elephants received analgesics and were given oral or rectal fluids. Other treatments included warm-water enemas or walking. One elephant underwent exploratory celiotomy. Three animals died, and the elephant taken to surgery was euthanized prior to anesthetic recovery. At necropsy, all animals had severe, strangulating intestinal lesions.

Anterior uveitis as an atypical presentation of large granular lymphoma in a caracal (Caracal caracal).

An 11-year-old, female, spayed caracal (Caracal caracal) presented with a 3-month history of intermittent anorexia, vomiting, and weight loss. At examination, bilateral anterior uveitis with anisocoria was present. Further examination under general anesthesia revealed the anterior chamber of the right eye contained copious amounts of thick fibrin, hypopyon, and hyphema obscuring the ventral pupil margin and ventral iris. Aqueous paracentesis revealed a cytologic diagnosis of large granular lymphoma. Additional antemortem diagnostics (computed tomography, ultrasound with fine needle aspiration, and cytology) confirmed the diagnosis of multicentric large granular lymphoma with associated intestinal perforation. Necropsy and histopathology confirmed multicentric large granular lymphoma in the right eye, jejunum, mesenteric lymph nodes, and right kidney. Large granular lymphoma in nondomestic felids is likely rare since it has not been previously reported, but should be considered as a differential in any felid species with anterior uveitis or when lymphoma is considered. In the case of this caracal, the use of aqueous paracentesis with cytology was a powerful diagnostic.

Baseline levels of trace metals in blood of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

Whole blood from 33 healthy captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) was analyzed for 12 trace elements: aluminum, chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, selenium, cadmium, mercury, and lead for the purpose of estimating preliminary baseline population parameters for these minerals. Metals were quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. Baseline ranges for all animals and for all trace elements were comparable to normal concentrations reported in other species. This is the first report of normal trace element levels in the blood of captive elephants.

The importance of manual white blood cell differential counts and platelet estimates in elephant hematology: blood film review is essential.

Unique features of elephant hematology are known challenges in analytical methodology like two types of monocytes typical for members of the Order Afrotheria and platelet counts of the comparatively small elephant platelet. To investigate WBC differential and platelet data generated by an impedance-based hematology analyzer without availability of validated species-specific software for recognition of elephant WBCs and platelets, compared to manual blood film review. Blood samples preserved in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) of 50 elephants (n = 35 Elephas maximus and n = 15 Loxodonta africana) were used. A Mann-Whitney test for independent samples was used to compare parameters between methods and agreement was tested using Bland-Altman bias plots. All hematological variables, including absolute numbers of heterophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, and platelets, were significantly different (p < 0.0001) between both methods of analysis, and there was no agreement using Bland-Altman bias plots. Manual review consistently produced higher heterophil and monocyte counts as well as platelet estimates, while the automated analyzer produced higher lymphocyte, eosinophil, and basophil counts. The hematology analyzer did not properly differentiate elephant lymphocytes and monocytes, and did not accurately count elephant platelets. These findings emphasize the importance of manual blood film review as part of elephant complete blood counts in both clinical and research settings and as a basis for the development of hematological reference intervals.

Pharmacokinetics and intramuscular bioavailability of a single dose of butorphanol in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

Captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are susceptible to lameness resulting from foot and joint pain, including chronic arthritis. In the past, opioid analgesics, such as butorphanol, have been used clinically for pain management. However, dosages used in treating elephants were often extrapolated from data in horses, with no pharmacokinetic information on the specific agents used in elephant species. In this pharmacokinetic study, six adult captive Asian elephants (5 female, 1 male castrate) were administered a 0.015 mg/kg dose of butorphanol by both i.v. and i.m. routes. A complete crossover design was used with a 3-wk washout period between treatments. Serial blood samples were collected immediately prior to butorphanol administration and at 5, 10, 20, and 40 min and 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 24 h after administration. The butorphanol analysis was performed using a validated liquid chromatography-mass spectrophotometric assay with a limit of quantitation of 0.025 ng/ml. The mean Cmax after i.m. administration was 7.9 ng/ml, with a corresponding Tmax, of 40 min and t(1/3), of 7.1 h. After i.v. administration, the mean Vd(ss) was 1.4 L/kg and the mean Cl(p) was 0.26 L/kg/h. Mean i.m. bioavailability was 37%. The results indicate that butorphanol used at 0.015 mg/kg i.m. or i.v. could be useful in elephants when given for pain control.

ESOPHAGEAL MEASUREMENT OF CORE BODY TEMPERATURE IN THE FLORIDA MANATEE (TRICHECHUS MANATUS LATIROSTRIS).

Cold-stress syndrome (CSS) is one of the leading natural threats to free-ranging Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris). Cold water exposure below the species' acceptable physiologic range is a frequent occurrence for manatees during cold weather months causing CSS-induced systemic illness and significant annual mortality. Although CSS is a commonly presented condition at manatee rehabilitation facilities, the core body temperatures in CSS manatees are currently unknown due to the lack of clinically applicable and accurate temperature measurement methodologies. Our objective was to establish a clinically applicable measurement methodology of core body temperature in manatees. A novel, minimally invasive temperature technique to obtain esophageal temperature by placing a temperature sensor through an oro-gastric tube was compared to current oral and nasal methods in 20 clinically healthy manatees. Results identified the esophageal measurement as the best performing and most precise temperature methodology. The superior performance of esophageal temperature measurements differed significantly from both nasal and oral measurements, while nasal and oral measurements did not differ when compared with each other. The esophageal measurements were consistent with manatee core body temperature, facilitating generation of a reference interval for core body temperature in healthy manatees (35.0-35.8 C). Four CSS medical cases were evaluated with the newly validated esophageal temperature method, facilitating diagnosis of hypothermia. The application of this temperature measurement technique to CSS manatees in field or rehabilitation settings will help in understanding CSS pathophysiology, improve medical assessments during rehabilitation, and contribute to conservation efforts.

Oral, Cloacal, and Hemipenal Actinomycosis in Captive Ball Pythons (Python regius).

Ball pythons (Python regius) are one of the most commonly kept and bred reptiles in captivity. In a large ball python breeding colony, a unique syndrome characterized by granulomatous inflammation of the cloaca and hemipenes (phalli) was observed in 140 of 481 (29.1%) breeding males, but only one of 1,446 breeding females. Lesions were absent in virgin males (n = 201) and virgin females (n = 293). On postmortem examination (n = 13, 12 males, 1 female), numerous well-defined mucosal and submucosal granulomas were present in the hemipenes (males) and cloaca (males and female). Extension into the coelomic cavity and liver was noted in a subset of these animals. An additional small subset of breeder animals (6/2027; 0.3%) presented with oral and mandibular swellings. Postmortem examination (n = 4, all female) showed oral lesions histologically indistinguishable from the cloacal/hemipenal lesions. Aerobic bacterial culture of a hepatic granuloma of one snake resulted in the isolation of filamentous, Gram-positive bacilli; amplification, and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and subsequent phylogenetic analysis of the isolate identified the bacterium as a novel species of Actinomyces. Screening of cloacal and oral granulomas using a specific, heminested 16S rRNA PCR assay confirmed the presence of the agent in all 17 snakes, as well as in cloacal swabs taken at the time of necropsy in 11/13 snakes. The Actinomyces sp. was also identified by PCR of cloacal swabs of unaffected snakes (n = 94) from the affected colony and two unrelated, grossly unaffected breeding colonies. In the affected colony, 65.5% of breeding animals (n = 23) but only 11.9% of virgin animals (n = 42) tested PCR positive, with breeding status being a significant predictor of bacterium presence (P < 0.00001). This study characterizes a granulomatous mucosal disease syndrome of breeding male ball pythons associated with a novel Actinomyces. In stark contrast to male snakes, the presence of the bacterium in both breeding and virgin females was very rarely associated with clinical disease. Though additional studies are necessary, these data suggest a role for the novel bacterium in the disease process, a predilection for clinical disease in male snakes, and the potential for sexual transmission of the disease.

Urinalysis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

Urine was collected from 22 healthy female adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and analyzed for the purpose of determining normal biochemical and microscopic parameters. Findings included urine that was less concentrated compared to other mammals, predominantly alkaline pH, crystalluria of varying types in all samples, and minimal cellularity. Glucose and urobilinogen were not detected in any samples. Trace ketones and trace bilirubin occurred in two different samples. Trace blood was identified in another sample. Three samples tested positive for protein via dipstick but were confirmed negative through the sulfosalicylic acid test. Two samples contained mucus threads. Bacteria were seen microscopically in four samples, and could be cultured from six others, but, because of the lack of an associated inflammatory response and the heterogeneous populations of organisms observed, were considered to be contaminants from the distal urethra, the vestibulovulva, or the environment. Because of the variability in elephant urine, baseline values for elephants within captive herds should be obtained and regular assessments should be performed over time to allow trending of data. Establishment of normal urine values provides an important tool in elephant health care.

Saccular lung cannulation in a ball python (Python regius) to treat a tracheal obstruction.

An adult male ball python (Python regius) presented in a state of severe dyspnea characterized by open-mouth breathing and vertical positioning of the head and neck. The animal had copious discharge in the tracheal lumen acting as an obstruction. A tube was placed through the body wall into the caudal saccular aspect of the lung to allow the animal to breathe while treatment was initiated. The ball python's dyspnea immediately improved. Diagnostics confirmed a bacterial respiratory infection with predominantly Providencia rettgeri. The saccular lung (air sac) tube was removed after 13 days. Pulmonary endoscopy before closure showed minimal damage with a small amount of hemorrhage in the surrounding muscle tissue. Respiratory disease is a common occurrence in captive snakes and can be associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Saccular lung cannulation is a relatively simple procedure that can alleviate tracheal narrowing or obstruction, similar to air sac cannulation in birds.

Fungal keratitis in a gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus).

A free-ranging gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) presented for trauma and blindness. Fibrinous exudate obscured visualization of the globes. This exudative crust extended from the conjunctival fornices through the palpebral fissure and was manually removed. Ophthalmic examination revealed bilateral corneal ulcerations and scarring and phthisis bulbi of the left globe. Histology of the crust revealed a necrotic conjunctivitis with intralesional fungal hyphae. Culture of the corneal ulcer of the left eye isolated moderate growth of a mixed fungal flora consisting of Curvularia sp. and Aspergillus sp. Miconazole ophthalmic solution was administered and the ulcers in both eyes healed, but corneal edema continued. After 2 mo of treatment with miconazole, tramadol, acetylcysteine, hypertonic saline ointment, artificial tears, and hypertonic saline flushes, the right eye was normal with only a small scar. The left eye remained phthisical. This is the first report of fungal keratitis in a wild reptile and a gopher tortoise.