Utilization of Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) Seed Hydrodistillation Time to Produce Essential Oil Fractions with Varied Compositions and Pharmacological Effects.

The intent of this study was to utilize distillation timeframes (DT) of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) essential oil (EO) to generate fractions with differential chemical compositions and bioactivity. Ten fractions were captured at the following distillation timeframes: 0.0-0.5, 0.5-1.0, 1.0-2.5, 2.5-5.0, 5.0-10, 10-30, 30-60, 60-90, 90-120, and 120-240 min. In addition, a control EO was collected from a straight 0-240 min non-stop distillation. ANOVA and advanced regression modeling revealed that the produced EO fractions possess substantial variation in the concentration of potentially desired compounds. The concentrations (%) of α-phellandrene, 3-carene, p-cymene, limonene, α-thujene, α-pinene, camphene, sabinene, ß-pinene, and myrcene decreased, while the concentrations (%) of α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene, and myristicin increased in later DT fractions. Nutmeg EO showed some antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum D6, but did not exhibit significant antifungal activity. In general, nutmeg seed oil yields increased with an increase of DT. These results may be utilized by industries using nutmeg EO.

Essential Oil Yield, Composition, and Bioactivity of Sagebrush Species in the Bighorn Mountains.

Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) are dominant wild plants in large areas of the U.S., Canada and Mexico, and they include several species and subspecies. The aim was to determine if there are significant differences in essential oil (EO) yield, composition, and biological activity of sagebrush within the Bighorn Mountains, U.S. The EO yield in fresh herbage varied from 0.15 to 1.69% for all species, including 0.25-1.69% in A. tridentata var. vaseyana, 0.64-1.44% in A. tridentata var. tridentata, 1% in A. tridentata var. wyomingensis, 0.8-1.2% in A. longifolia, 0.8-1% in A. cana, and 0.16% in A. ludoviciana. There was significant variability in the EO profile between species, and subspecies. Some EO constituents, such as α-pinene (0-35.5%), camphene (0-21.5%), eucalyptol (0-30.8%), and camphor (0-45.5%), were found in most species and varied with species and subspecies. The antioxidant capacity of the EOs varied between the species and subspecies. None of the sagebrush EOs had significant antimicrobial, antimalarial, antileishmanial activity, or contained podophyllotoxin. Some accessions yielded EO with significant concentrations of compounds including camphor, eucalyptol, cis-thujone, α-pinene, α-necrodol-acetate, fragranol, grandisol, para-cymene, and arthole. Therefore, chemotypes can be selected and possibly introduced into culture and be grown for commercial production of these compounds to meet specific industry needs.

Allelopathic Effects of Essential Oils on Seed Germination of Barley and Wheat.

In this study, we evaluated the allelopathic effects of essential oils (EOs) from six different plant species, namely, lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis), English thyme (Thymus vulgaris), lovage (Levisticum officinale), costmary (Chrysanthemum balsamita), and cumin (Cuminum cyminum), on seed germination and seedling growth of barley (Hordeum vulgare) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). The main constituents of the EOs of L. angustifolia were 47.0% linalool acetate and 28.4% linalool; H. officinalis' main constituents were 39.8% cis-pinocamphone, 9.8% trans-pinocamphone, 11.4% ß-pinene, and 7.5% ß-phellandrene; T. vulgaris' were 38.2% para-cymene, 25.6% thymol, and 13.6% γ-terpinene; L. officinale's were 64.8% α-terpinyl acetate and 14.7% ß-phellandrene; C. balsamita's were 43.7% camphor, 32.4% trans-thujone, and 11.6% camphene; C. cyminum's were 49.6% cumin aldehyde, 10.4% para-cymene, 11.6% α-terpinen-7-al, and 9.1% ß-pinene. All six EOs exhibited an allelopathic effect and suppressed the seed germination and seedling development of wheat and barley; however, the concentrations that exhibited a suppressing effect were different among the plants. C. cyminum EO completely suppressed both barley and wheat germination at 10-, 30-, and 90-µL application rates, making it the most effective treatment among the tested EOs. C. balsamita's and H. officinalis' EOs at 30 and 90 µL application rates completely suppressed barley and wheat radicles per seed, radicle length (mm), seedling height (mm), and germination (%). L. angustifolia's EOs at 30- and 90-µL and T. vulgaris' EO at 90 µL application rates also completely suppressed barley and wheat radicles per seed, radicle length (mm), seedling height (mm), and germination (%). C. balsamita's, H. officinalis', L. angustifolia's, and T. vulgaris' EOs at a 10 µL application rate reduced barley radicle length, seedling height, and % germination relative to the control. Wheat seed germination % was completely suppressed by the application of L. angustifolia's and T. vulgaris' EOs at 30 and 90 µL, while T. vulgaris' EO at 10 µL rate reduced the germination relative to the control. Interestingly, C. balsamita and H. officinalis at 10 µL did not reduce wheat germination; however, they did reduce the number of radicles per seed, radicle length (mm), seedling height (mm), germination (%), and vigor index. Furthermore, L. officinale's EO reduced the measured indices (radicles per seed, radicle length, seedling height, and vigor index) at the 10, 30, and 90 µL application rates relative to the non-treated control; however, none of the application rates of L. officinale's EO had a suppression effect on wheat germination. This study demonstrated the allelopathic effects of the EOs of six different herbal plant species on seed germination of barley and winter wheat. The results can be utilized in the development of commercial products for controlling pre-harvest sprouting of wheat and barley. Further research is needed to verify the results under field conditions.

Wool-waste as organic nutrient source for container-grown plants.

A container experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that uncomposted wool wastes could be used as nutrient source and growth medium constituent for container-grown plants. The treatments were: (1) rate of wool-waste application (0 or unamended control, 20, 40, 80, and 120 g of wool per 8-in. pot), (2) growth medium constituents [(2.1) wool plus perlite, (2.2) wool plus peat, and (2.3) wool plus peat plus perlite], and (3) plant species (basil and Swiss chard). A single addition of 20, 40, 80, or 120 g of wool-waste to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L.) and basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) in pots with growth medium provided four harvests of Swiss chard and five harvests of basil. Total basil yield from the five harvests was 1.6-5 times greater than the total yield from the unamended control, while total Swiss chard yield from the four harvests was 2-5 times greater relative to the respective unamended control. The addition of wool-waste to the growth medium increased Swiss chard and basil tissue N, and NO(3)-N and NH(4)-N in growth medium relative to the unamended control. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) microanalysis of wool fibers sampled at the end of the experiments indicated various levels of decomposition, with some fibers retaining their original surface structure. Furthermore, most of the wool fibers' surfaces contained significant concentrations of S and much less N, P, or K. SEM/EDX revealed that some plant roots grow directly on wool-waste fibers suggesting either (1) root directional growth towards sites with greater nutrient concentration and/or (2) a possible role for roots or root exudates in wool decomposition. Results from this study suggest that uncomposted wool wastes can be used as soil amendment, growth medium constituent, and nutrient source for container-grown plants.

Dual Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops as Bioenergy Feedstocks.

Dual production of biofuels and chemicals can increase the economic value of lignocellulosic bioenergy feedstocks. We compared the bioenergy potential of several essential oil (EO) crops with switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L.), a crop chosen to benchmark biomass and lignocellulosic biofuel production. The EO crops of interest were peppermint ( Mentha × piperita L.), "Scotch" spearmint ( Mentha × gracilis Sole), Japanese cornmint ( Mentha canadensis L.), and sweet sagewort ( Artemisia annua L.). We also assessed each crop for EO production in a marginal production environment in Wyoming, USA, with irrigation and nitrogen (N) rates using a split-plot experimental design. Oil content ranged from 0.31 to 0.4% for Japanese cornmint, 0.23 to 0.26% for peppermint, 0.38 to 0.5% for spearmint, and the overall mean of sweet sagewort was 0.34%. Oil yields ranged from (in kg ha-1) 34 to 165 in Japanese cornmint, 25 to 108 in peppermint, 29.3 to 126 in spearmint, and 39.7 in sweet sagewort. EO production, but not composition, was sensitive to N fertilization. The alternative bioenergy crops and switchgrass produced similar amounts of ethanol from bench-scale simultaneous saccharification and fermentation assays. Value-added incomes from the EO proceeds were estimated to be between $1055 and $5132 ha-1 from peppermint, $1309 and $5580 ha-1 from spearmint, $510 and $2460 ha-1 from Japanese cornmint, and $3613 ha-1 from sweet sagewort under Wyoming growth conditions. The advantage of the proposed crops over traditional lignocellulosic species is the production of high-value natural products in addition to lignocellulosic biofuel production.

Essential Oil Content, Composition and Bioactivity of Juniper Species in Wyoming, United States.

The objective of this study was to evaluate variations in leaf essential oil (EO) content and composition of Juniperus species in the Bighorn Mountains {J comimunis L. (common juniper), J. horizontalis Moench. (creeping juniper), and J scopulorum Sarg. (Rocky Mountain juniper)} in Wyoming, USA. The EO was extracted via steam distillation of fresh leaves (needles). The EO composition of the three Juniper species varied widely. Overall, the essential oil content of fresh leaves was 1.0% (0.4-1.8% range in different accessions) in J. communis, 1.3% (1.2 to 1.6% range) in J. horizontalis, and 1.1% (0.7-1.5% range) in J. scopulorln. The EO chemical profile of J. communis was very different from that of the other two species. The concentration of α-pinene in the oil was 67- 80% in J. communis, 2.8-6% in J. horizontalis, and 2.3-13% in J. scopulorun. The concentration of sabinene was 57-61% of the oil of J. horizontalis and 13- 59%. in oil of J. scopulorum, whereas sabinene was either below 1% or not detected in J. communis. The oils of J scopulorm and J horizontalis had higher antioxidant capacity than that of J. communis. The oils of the three junipers did not show significant antimicrobial activity against 10 organisms. The diversity of the essential oil composition of these three junipers may encourage diverse industrial applications of Juniperus leaf essential oil.

Dual extraction of essential oil and podophyllotoxin from creeping juniper (Juniperus horizontalis).

Juniperus horizontalis Moench (Family Cupressaceae), commonly called creeping juniper, is a widely distributed species in the United States and much of Canada. It is potentially a source for two important chemical products, the anticancer drug synthetic precursor, podophyllotoxin and essential oils. The objectives of this study were to ascertain the likelihood of utilizing J. horizontalis needles for the simultaneous production of both (-)-podophyllotoxin and essential oil components and to determine the optimum distillation time (DT) needed for the production of essential oil containing a specific ratio of constituents. Eleven different distillation times were tested in this study: 20, 40, 80, 160, 180, 240, 480, 600, 720, 840, and 960 min. Total essential oil content increased with increasing distillation time from a minimum of 0.023% at 20 min to a maximum of 1.098% at 960 min. The major constituents present in the oil were alpha-pinene, sabinene, and limonene. The percent concentration of sabinene in the essential oil varied from a high of 46.6% at 80 min to a low of 30.2% at 960 min, that of limonene changed very little as a result of distillation time and remained near 30% for all distillation times, whereas the concentration of alpha-pinene was 9.6% at 20 min DT and decreased to 4.2% at 960 min. Post distillation analysis of needles revealed elevated amounts of (-)-podophyllotoxin remaining in the tissue varied in the amount of podophyllotoxin present, from a low of 0.281% to a high of 0.364% as compared to undistilled needles which gave 0.217% podophyllotoxin. As a result of this study, specific essential oil components can now be targeted in J. horizontalis by varying the distillation time. Furthermore, needles can be successfully utilized as a source of both essential oil and podophyllotoxin, consecutively.

Distillation time alters essential oil yield, composition, and antioxidant activity of male Juniperus scopulorum trees.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of 15 distillation times (DT), ranging from 1.25 to 960 min, on oil yield, essential oil profiles, and antioxidant capacity of male J. scopulorum trees. Essential oil yields were 0.07% at 1.25 min DT and reached a maximum of 1.48% at 840 min DT. The concentrations of alpha-thujene (1.76-2.75%), alpha-pinene (2.9-8.7%), sabinene (45-74.7%), myrcene (2.4-3.4%), and para-cymene (0.8-3.1%) were highest at the shortest DT (1.5 to 5 min) and decreased with increasing DT. Cis-sabinene hydrate (0.5-0.97%) and linalool plus trans-sabinene (0.56-1.6%) reached maximum levels at 40 min DT. Maximum concentrations of limonene (2.3-2.8%) and pregeijerene-B (0.06-1.4%) were obtained at 360-480 min DT, and 4-terpinenol (0.7-5.7%) at 480 min DT. Alpha-terpinene (0.16-2.9%), gamma-terpinene (0.3-4.9%) and terpinolene (0.3-1.4%) reached maximum at 720 min DT. The concentrations of delta-cadinene (0.06-1.65%), elemol (0-6.0%), and 8-alpha-acetoxyelemol (0-4.4%) reached maximum at 840 min DT. The yield of the essential oil constituents increased with increasing DT. Only linalool/transsabinene hydrate reached a maximum yield at 360 min DT. Maximum yields of the following constituents were obtained at 720 min DT: alpha-thujene, alpha-pinene, camphene, sabinene, myrcene, alpha-terpinene, para-cimene, limonene, gamma-terpinene, terpinolene, and 4-terpinenol. At 840 min DT, cis-sabinene hydrate, prejeijerene-B, gamma muurolene, delta-cadinene, reached maximum. At 960 min DT, maximum yields of beta-pinene, elemol, alphaeudesmol/betaeudesmol, 8-alpha-acetoxyelemol were reached. These changes were adequately modeled by either the Michaelis-Menten or the Power (Convex) nonlinear regression models. Oils from the 480 min DT showed higher antioxidant activity compared to samples collected at 40, 160, or 960 min DT. These results show the potential for obtaining essential oils with various compositions and antioxidant capacity from male J. scopulorum by varying DT. This study can be used as a reference paper for comparing results of reports where different lengths of the DT were used.