Comprehensive Assessment of Environmental Emissions, Fate, and Risks of Veterinary Antibiotics in China: An Environmental Fate Modeling Approach.

China is one of the major global consumers of veterinary antibiotics. Insufficient recognition of emissions and environmental contamination hamper global efforts to prevent antibiotic resistance development. This pioneering study combined empirical data and modeling approaches to predict total 2010-2020 emissions of 80 veterinary antibiotics ranging from 23,110 to 40,850 tonnes/year, after 36-50% antibiotic removal by manure treatment. Following an initial increase of 10% from 2010 to 2015, emissions declined thereafter by 43%. While 85% of emissions discharged into soils, approximately 56%, 23%, and 18% of environmental residue were ultimately distributed in soils, freshwaters, and seawaters under steady-state conditions. In 2020, 657 (319-1470) tonnes entered the ocean from inland freshwaters. Median ∑antibiotics concentrations were estimated at 4.7 × 103 ng/L in freshwaters and 2.9 ng/g in soils, with tetracyclines and sulfonamides as the predominant components. We identified 44 veterinary antibiotics potentially posing high risks of resistance development in freshwaters, with seven exhibiting high risks in >10% of Chinese freshwater areas. Tetracyclines were the category with the most antibiotics exhibiting elevated risks; however, sulfamethylthiazole demonstrated the highest individual compound risk. The Haihe River Basin displayed the highest susceptibility overall. The findings offer valuable support for control of veterinary antibiotic contamination in China.

Soil's Hidden Power: The Stable Soil Organic Carbon Pool Controls the Burden of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Background Soils.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) tend to accumulate in cold regions by cold condensation and global distillation. Soil organic matter is the main storage compartment for POPs in terrestrial ecosystems due to deposition and repeated air-surface exchange processes. Here, physicochemical properties and environmental factors were investigated for their role in influencing POPs accumulation in soils of the Tibetan Plateau and Antarctic and Arctic regions. The results showed that the soil burden of most POPs was closely coupled to stable mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC). Combining the proportion of MAOC and physicochemical properties can explain much of the soil distribution characteristics of the POPs. The background levels of POPs were estimated in conjunction with the global soil database. It led to the proposition that the stable soil carbon pools are key controlling factors affecting the ultimate global distribution of POPs, so that the dynamic cycling of soil carbon acts to counteract the cold-trapping effects. In the future, soil carbon pool composition should be fully considered in a multimedia environmental model of POPs, and the risk of secondary release of POPs in soils under conditions such as climate change can be further assessed with soil organic carbon models.

Evaluating the Current State of Epilepsy Care in the Province of Ontario.

There are numerous challenges pertaining to epilepsy care across Ontario, including Epilepsy Monitoring Unit (EMU) bed pressures, surgical access and community supports. We sampled the current clinical, community and operational state of Ontario epilepsy centres and community epilepsy agencies post COVID-19 pandemic. A 44-item survey was distributed to all 11 district and regional adult and paediatric Ontario epilepsy centres. Qualitative responses were collected from community epilepsy agencies. Results revealed ongoing gaps in epilepsy care across Ontario, with EMU bed pressures and labour shortages being limiting factors. A clinical network advising the Ontario Ministry of Health will improve access to epilepsy care.

SUDEP counseling: Where do we stand?

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the leading cause of epilepsy-related death in children and adults living with epilepsy. Several recent clinical practice guidelines have recommended that all individuals living with epilepsy and their caregivers be informed about SUDEP as a part of routine epilepsy counseling. Furthermore, several studies over the last two decades have explored the state of SUDEP counseling. Patients with epilepsy and their families want to be informed about the risk of SUDEP at or near the time of diagnosis, and preferably in person. Despite guideline recommendations, many pediatric and adult neurologists do not routinely inform individuals with epilepsy and their families about SUDEP. Some neurologists discuss SUDEP with only a subset of patients with epilepsy, such as those with risk factors like frequent generalized or focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizures, nocturnal seizures, noncompliance, or medically refractory epilepsy. Proponents of routine SUDEP counseling argue that patients with epilepsy and their families have a "right to know" and that counseling may positively impact epilepsy self-management (i.e., behavioral modification and risk reduction). Some neurologists still believe that SUDEP counseling may cause unnecessary stress and anxiety for patients and their families (although this is erroneous) and that they also have a "right not to know." This narrative review explores the current gaps in SUDEP counseling, patients' and caregivers' perspectives of SUDEP counseling, and SUDEP prevention.

Indirect Emissions from Organophosphite Antioxidants Result in Significant Organophosphate Ester Contamination in China.

Organophosphite antioxidants (OPAs) have been seriously neglected as potential sources of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in environments. This study utilizes a modeling approach to quantify for the first time national emissions and multimedia distributions of triphenyl phosphate (TPHP)─a well-known flame retardant─and three novel OPEs: tris(2,4-ditert-butylphenyl) phosphate (AO168═O), bis(2,4-ditert-butylphenyl) pentaerythritol diphosphate (AO626═O2), and trisnonylphenol phosphate (TNPP). Emphasis is on the quantitative assessment of OPA source in China. TPHP has 1.1-9.7 times higher emission (300 Mg/year in 2019 with half from OPA sources) than AO168═O (278 Mg/year), AO626═O2 (53 Mg/year), and TNPP (32 Mg/year), but AO168═O is predominant in environments (63-79%) except freshwaters. About 72-99% of the studied OPEs are emitted via air, with 88-99% ultimately distributed into soils as the major sink. OPA-source emissions contribute 9.5-57% and 4.7-56% of TPHP masses and concentrations (except in sediments) in different media, respectively. Both AO168═O and AO626═O2 exhibit high overall persistence ranging between 2 and 11 years. Source emissions and environmental concentrations are elevated in economically developed areas, while persistence is higher in northern areas, where precipitation and temperature are lower. This study shows the significance of the sources of OPA to OPE contamination, which supports chemical management of these substances.

Life after SUDEP: Experiences of traumatic loss and growth.

PURPOSE: To understand the experiences of bereaved relatives of individuals who passed due to sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) and to explore the impacts of death in their lives. METHODS: The principles of fundamental qualitative description informed all design decisions. Stratified purposeful sampling included 21 bereaved relatives (parent, sibling, or spouse/partner), aged at least 18 years, of persons who passed away because of SUDEP. In-depth one-to-one interviews were conducted. Directed content analysis was used to code, categorize, and synthesize the interview data. RESULTS: There was some criticism of emergency response and medical professionals involved in providing insensitive or poor care immediately after SUDEP occurred. Personal hardships described by participants following SUDEP included loss of personal identity, feeling depressed, experiencing guilt, having panic attacks, requiring therapy, as well as having difficulty with anniversaries, dates, and cleaning up a child's room. Bereaved spouses and parents in particular spoke of experiencing challenges in maintaining other relationships following the death. Some participants spoke of experiencing increased financial hardships. Ways of coping included keeping oneself busy, honoring the memory of the loved one, relying on friends and families, and engaging in advocacy/community work, including raising awareness on epilepsy and SUDEP. CONCLUSIONS: Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy affected several aspects of the day-to-day lives of bereaved relatives. Though methods of coping were similar to the usual strategies adopted by all bereaved relatives, advocacy work related to raising awareness about epilepsy and SUDEP was unique to this group. Guidelines on SUDEP should ideally include recommendations for trauma-informed support and assessment for depression and anxiety to the bereaved relatives as well.

A bibliometric analysis and assessment of priorities for heavy metal bioavailability research and risk management in contaminated land.

Risk assessment has been recognized as an important tool for evaluating heavy metal pollution and providing risk-based information for decision makers. In order to accurately assess the risk of heavy metals in contaminated soil to human health, it is necessary to conduct bioavailability studies on heavy metals in soil. Bioavailability of heavy metals in soils and the implications for risk assessment and land management/remediation has evolved over the decades and now has considerable practical and economic implications internationally. This article aims to explore its evolution by undertaking a bibliometric analysis of the research fields which have addressed heavy metal bioavailability in soils, with a focus on the risk assessment of contaminated land and human exposure to soil-borne metals. Bibliometric analysis techniques are applied to monitor and assess the changing research literature on the bioavailability of heavy metals in contaminated soils. Over 5000 articles were found for the period 1979-2020. The purpose was not to perform an exhaustive literature review, but to draw out trends and patterns in the literature, and to make observations on past and current priorities. Key words were extracted from the analysis and the roles of different countries in driving the research literature identified. Three phases in literature/subject development were identified. Between 1979 and 2000 (initial phase, 213 articles), studies used extraction procedures and solubility studies to investigate the roles of soil properties on metal form/speciation and focused on bioavailability to (crop) plants in agricultural soils. Between 2001 and 2010 (slow development phase, 1105 articles), attention switched to metals introduced in soil amendments and wastes, metal impacts on soil microbial processes, and incorporating bioavailability in risk assessment. More rigorous techniques were being used, such as the diffusive gradients in thin films technique, to better understand kinetic and metal speciation in soils and the quantitative relationship to bioavailability. By 2011-2020 (rapid development phase, 3137 articles), research was being conducted in many countries (site specific, often industrially contaminated and urban sites), with a focus shift to health risk assessment, remediation, and bioavailability to various ecological receptors (e.g., humans and animals), with the development of many methods of bioavailability (e.g., simulated gastrointestinal tract enzymolysis methods). Some priorities for research on soil heavy metal bioavailability are identified.

Evaluation and Application of a Novel Diffusive Gradients in Thin-Films Technique for In Situ Monitoring of Glucocorticoids in Natural Waters.

The potential environmental risks of glucocorticoids (GCs) have attracted attention in the past few decades. In this study, a novel diffusive gradients in thin-films (DGT) device and analytical technique based on the second generation of polar enhanced phase (PEP-2), PEP-2-DGT, were developed for sampling and quantifying natural and synthetic GCs in aquatic systems. The capacity of PEP-2 gels for accumulating all target compounds was >600 µg per disc, sufficient for long-term passive sampling of selected GCs, even in wastewaters. Systematic tests were carried out to verify the application of DGT in natural waters and wastewaters. The performance of PEP-2-DGT devices was independent (CDGT/Csoln was in the acceptable range of 0.9-1.1) of a wide range of environmental conditions: ionic strength (0.001-0.5 mol L-1), dissolved organic matter (0-20 mg L-1), and pH (3.06-9.02). It was tested for various diffusive layer thicknesses (0.565-2.065 mm) and different deployment times (10-168 h). Diffusion coefficients (D) of selected GCs through an agarose-based diffusive gel were determined for the first time (3.80-4.85 × 10-6 cm-2 s -1 at 25 °C). Linear correlations between D and log Kow were established for three groups of target GCs (R2 = 0.96-0.99). This could enable prediction of D values for other GCs with similar structures in the future, which will help for rapid screening and emergency monitoring. Concentrations and distribution patterns of analytes obtained by PEP-2-DGT devices in five rivers after 7- and 14-day deployments were in accordance with those measured from grab samples, with total GC concentrations ranging from 7 to 27 ng L-1 at all sampling sites, confirming the reliability and robustness of the DGT devices for monitoring GCs in natural waters. The development of the new DGT technique will help improve understanding of the behavior and fate of these compounds in the aquatic environments.

Assessing the Impact of Atrazine on the Availability of Arsenic in Soils Using DGT Technique.

Arsenic (As) has been observed to co-exist with atrazine (ATR) in soils worldwide. ATR, as an organic chemical, may affect the availability of As and further influence its uptake by organisms. Here we used a novel passive sampling technique, DGT (diffusive gradients in thin-films), to compare with other two conventional sampling approaches (soil solution extraction and 'Olsen As' measurement) to investigate the influence of ATR addition (normal recommended level and contaminated level) on the availability of As in soils, to further interpret the potential risk of As in soil environment. The effect of adding ATR on the behaviour of As in soils was limited. When the concentration of ATR was much higher, the availability of As in soils was supressed, the labile pool size was also affected, but the R value did not change much. The properties of the soils also played an important role by affecting the states of the compounds.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Related Chemicals in the Global Environment: Some Personal Reflections.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and related chemicals are fascinating because of their combination of physical-chemical properties and complex effects. Most are man-made, but some also have natural origins. They are persistent in the environment, but they can be broken down variously by biodegradation, atmospheric reactions, and abiotic transformations. They can exist in the gas or particle phases, or both, in the atmosphere and in the dissolved or particulate phases, or both, in water. These combinations mean that they may undergo long-range transport in the atmosphere or oceans, or they may stay close to sources. Hence, emissions from one country are frequently a source of contamination to another country. They are also usually lipophilic, so-combined with persistence-this means they can accumulate in organisms and biomagnify through food chains. We all have a baseline of POPs residues in our tissues, even the unborn fetus via placental transfer and the newly born baby via mother's milk. POPs in biological systems occur in mixtures, so confirming effects caused by POPs on humans and other top predators is never straightforward. Depending on which papers you read, POPs may be relatively benign, or they could be responsible for key subchronic and chronic effects on reproductive potential, on immune response, as carcinogens, and on a range of behavioral and cognitive end points. They could be a factor behind diseases and conditions which have been increasingly reported and studied in modern societies. In short, they are endlessly fascinating to scientists and a nightmare to regulators and policy makers.

Use of the Dynamic Technique DGT to Determine the Labile Pool Size and Kinetic Resupply of Pesticides in Soils and Sediments.

The diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique has been successfully and widely applied to investigate the labile fractions of inorganic contaminants in soils and sediments, but there have been almost no applications to organic contaminants. Here we developed and tested the approach for the pesticide Atrazine (ATR) in a controlled soil experiment and in situ in an intact lake sediment core. The soil study explored the relationships between soil solution, DGT measured labile ATR and solvent extractable ATR in dosed soils of different organic matter, pH status and incubation times. The results are further interpreted using the DIFS (DGT-induced fluxes in soils and sediments) model. Resupply of ATR to the soil solution was partially sustained by the solid phase in all the soils. This was due to small labile pool size and slow kinetics, with soil pH being an important controlling factor. The in situ sediment study successfully used a DGT probe to examine labile ATR distribution through the core on the subcm scale. It demonstrated-for the first time-an easy to use in situ technique to investigate the effects of redox on resupply kinetics and biogeochemical processes of trace organic contaminants in sediments.

Development and Applications of Novel DGT Passive Samplers for Measuring 12 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Natural Waters and Wastewaters.

Extensive and long-term use of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) has caused their widespread distribution in aquatic systems. A new diffusive gradients in thin-films (DGT) passive sampling method based on weak anion exchanger (WAX) binding layer is developed here for monitoring five perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), five perfluoroalkanesulfonic acids (PFSAs) and two PFASs (6:2 FTSA and GenX) in waters. Performance of WAX-DGTs was independent of environmental conditions, namely pH (3.03-8.96), ionic strength (1-500 mM), and DOM content (4-30 mg L-1). Diffusion coefficients (D) of the 12 PFASs in the diffusive gels were measured, 9 for the first time. Linear correlations between D and perfluoroalkyl chain lengths (CF2) were established to obtain D for congener chemicals with the similar functional group and structure. The binding capacity of the WAX-DGT sampler was at least 440 µg PFASs per sampler, sufficient for applications in waters across a wide range of conditions and PFASs concentrations. Successful applications of WAX based DGT samplers in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and three rivers has demonstrated that DGT is a powerful tool for monitoring, surveillance and research of these 12 PFASs in aquatic systems, and can be extended to wider suites of PFs in future.

Selected Persistent Organic Pollutants in Ambient Air in Turkey: Regional Sources and Controlling Factors.

As a result of its unique location, Turkey receives air masses from Europe, Russia, Middle East, and Africa, making it an important place in terms of long-range atmospheric transport (LRT) of contaminants. Atmospheric levels of 22 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 45 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and 14 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in two metropolitan cities, Istanbul and Izmir, on a weekly basis from May 2014 to May 2015. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its derivatives were dominant OCP species, followed by isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) at both sites. The annual mean concentration of ∑DDX (sum of o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDE) was 82 pg/m3 for Istanbul and 89 pg/m3 for Izmir, while these levels were about 46 pg/m3 for ∑HCHs (sum of α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-HCH) at both of the sites. At both stations, tri- and tetra-PCBs and tetra- and penta-PBDEs were dominant congeners. The temperature dependence indicates that both LRT and local contaminated areas contribute to the elevated levels. A Lagrangian particle dispersion model (FLEXPART) showed a few potential source regions in northern Africa and Middle East, southern-southwestern and eastern Europe including Russia, as well as from local domestic metropolitan areas.

Modeling of Flame Retardants in Typical Urban Indoor Environments in China during 2010-2030: Influence of Policy and Decoration and Implications for Human Exposure.

Novel flame retardants (FRs) are of increasing concern, given growing evidence of health effects and use to replace polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). This study modeled combined effects of use policies and decoration on indoor FRs and human exposure for 18 widely used PBDEs, organophosphate esters (OPEs), and novel brominated flame retardants in typical urban indoor environments in China. The current estimated indoor emission rates and average concentrations in air and dust of the 18 FRs were 102-103 ng/h, 561 ng/m3, and 1.5 × 104 ng/g, respectively, with seven OPEs dominant (>69%). Different use patterns exist between China and the US and Europe. Scenarios modeled over 2010-2030 suggested that decoration would affect indoor concentrations of FRs more than use policies, and use policies were mainly responsible for shifts of FR composition. Additional use of hexabromobenzene and 2,3,4,5,6-pentabromotoluene and removal of BDE-209 would make the total human exposure to the modeled FR mixture increase after the restriction of penta- and octa-BDE but decrease after deca-BDE was banned. Better knowledge of the toxicity of substitutes is needed for a complete understanding of the health implications of such changes. Toddlers may be more affected by use changes than adults. Such studies are supportive to the management of FR use.

DNA Methylation Biomarkers of IQ Reduction are Associated with Long-term Lead Exposure in School Aged Children in Southern China.

Although lead associated with intelligence decline in children has long been reported, studies combining intelligence determination, molecular mechanisms exploration, and biomarker screen are quite rare. In this study, based on 333 children aged 9-11, we determined the role of DNA methylation (DNAm) in the relationship of lead exposure with children's intelligence. DNAm was measured from children's blood DNA specimens, and mediation analysis was performed to identify DNAm biomarkers mediating the lead-intelligence relationship. We identified forty-three differentially methylated regions (DMRs), and two fragments (FAM50B1 and PTCHD3) significantly mediated the lead-intelligence relationship, with contribution rates of 30.36% (p = 0.010) and 60.36% (p < 0.001), respectively. In addition, blood lead levels (BLLs) lower than 100 µg/L still adversely affected children's IQs and DNAm of the two fragments. Our data suggests that DNAm mediates lead-associated cognitive delay in children and blood lead reference value for school-aged children (100 µg/L) should be revised, and the candidate biomarkers can be used in related neurological diseases in future.

Monitoring Organic Pollutants in Waters Using the Diffusive Gradients in the Thin Films Technique: Investigations on the Effects of Biofouling and Degradation.

The diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) passive sampling technique has been increasingly used to provide time-weighted average concentrations of the biorelevant fraction of organic contaminants in waters, with high spatial and temporal resolutions at low cost. This study was tested for the effects of biofouling and compound degradation/loss during sample handling/storage on the DGT measurement of a range of emerging organic pollutants. Biofouling was tested using biofilms collected from the influent and effluent of a typical urban wastewater treatment plant. Most (85%) target compounds showed no detectable effect on the DGT measurement when 8- and 15-day biofouled membrane filters were used. Four storage methods were designed to test for within-sampler degradation/loss for up to 2 months. Intact samplers can be simply stored in polyethylene bags at ambient temperature (18-26 °C) with most compounds stable (mass loss <20%) for at least 1 week. Keeping intact samplers at 4 °C or binding gels in solvent gave good recoveries, with most chemicals being stable for up to 2 months, although the best results were obtained when binding gels were kept in solvent at 4 °C. Recommendations are made for sample handling and storage of DGT samplers used for determination of trace organics in monitoring and surveillance campaigns.

Applying Raman Microspectroscopy to Evaluate the Effects of Nutrient Cations on Alkane Bioavailability to Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1.

Contamination with petroleum hydrocarbons causes extensive damage to ecological systems. On oil-contaminated sites, alkanes are major components; many indigenous bacteria can access and/or degrade alkanes. However, their ability to do so is affected by external properties of the soil, including nutrient cations. This study used Raman microspectroscopy to study how nutrient cations affect alkanes' bioavailability to Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1 (a known degrader). Treated with Na, K, Mg, and Ca at 10 mM, A. baylyi was exposed to seven n-alkanes (decane, dodecane, tetradecane, hexadecane, nonadecane, eicosane, and tetracosane) and one alkane mixture (mineral oil). Raman spectral analysis indicated that bioavailability of alkanes varied with carbon chain lengths, and additional cations altered the bacterial response to n-alkanes. Sodium significantly increased the bacterial affinity toward decane and dodecane, and K and Mg enhanced the bioavailability of tetradecane and hexadecane. In contrast, the bacterial response was inhibited by Ca for all alkanes. Similar results were observed in mineral oil exposure. Our study employed Raman spectral assay to offer a deep insight into how nutrient cations affect the bioavailability of alkanes, suggesting that nutrient cations can play a key role in influencing the harmful effects of hydrocarbons and could be optimized to enhance the bioremediation strategy.

In Situ Catchment Scale Sampling of Emerging Contaminants Using Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films (DGT) and Traditional Grab Sampling: A Case Study of the River Thames, UK.

The in situ passive sampling technique, diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT), confronts many of the challenges associated with current sampling methods used for emerging contaminants (ECs) in aquatic systems. This study compared DGT and grab sampling for their suitability to screen and monitor ECs at the catchment scale in the River Thames system (U.K.) and explored their sources and environmental fate. The ubiquitous presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals, parabens, and their metabolites is of concern. This study is the first to report organophosphate esters (OPEs) in the study area. TEP (summer 13-160 and winter 18-46, ng/L) and TCPP (summer 242-4282 and winter 215-854, ng/L) were the main OPEs. For chemicals which were relatively stable in the rivers, DGT and grab sampling were in good agreement. For chemicals which showed high variation in water bodies, DGT provided a better integral of loadings and exposure than grab sampling. DGT was not as sensitive as grab sampling under the procedures employed here, but there are several options to improve it to give comparable/better performance. DGT samples require shorter preparation time for analysis in the laboratory than grab samples. Overall, DGT can be a powerful tool to characterize ECs throughout a large dynamic water system.

Water Browning Controls Adaptation and Associated Trade-Offs in Phytoplankton Stressed by Chemical Pollution.

The acquisition of tolerance to an environmental stressor can result in organisms displaying slower growth after stress release. While well-grounded in the theory, empirical evidence of the trade-off between stress tolerance and organism fitness is scarce and blurred by the interaction with different environmental factors. Here, we report the effects of water browning on the responses, tolerance acquisition, and associated trade-offs in a population of microalgae exposed to sublethal concentrations of organic micropollutants over multiple generations. Our results show that dissolved organic matter (DOM) reduces toxic responses and modulates tolerance acquisition by the algae, possibly by complexing micropollutants. Microalgae that acquire tolerance allocate resources to fitness at the cost of reduced cell size. They yield higher productivity than nonadapted ones when grown in the presence of micropollutants but lower in their absence. The net trade-off was positive, indicating that adaptation can result in a higher productivity and fitness in tolerant species in recurrently stressed environments.

Evidence for Major Contributions of Unintentionally Produced PCBs in the Air of China: Implications for the National Source Inventory.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were not widely manufactured or used in China before they became the subject of international bans on production. Recent work has shown that they have reached China associated with imported wastes and that there are considerable unintentional sources of PCBs that have only recently been identified. As such, it was hypothesized that the source inventory and profile of PCBs may be different or unique in China, compared to countries where they were widely used and which have been widely studied. For the first time in this study, we undertook a complete analysis of 209 PCB congeners and assessed the contribution of unintentionally produced PCBs (UP-PCBs) in the atmosphere of China, using polyurethane foam passive air samplers (PUF-PAS) deployed across a wide range of Chinese locations. ∑209 PCBs ranged from 9 to 6856 pg/m3 (median: 95 pg/m3) during three deployments in 2016-2017. PCB 11 was one of the most detected congeners, contributing 33 ± 19% to ∑209 PCBs. The main sources to airborne PCBs in China were estimated and ranked as pigment/painting (34%), metallurgical industry/combustion (31%), e-waste (23%), and petrochemical/plastic industry (6%). For typical Aroclor-PCBs, e-waste sources were dominated (>50%). Results from our study indicate that UP-PCBs have become the controlling source in the atmosphere of China, and an effective control strategy is urgently needed to mitigate emissions from multiple industrial sources.