Respiratory aerosol particle emission and simulated infection risk is greater during indoor endurance than resistance exercise.

Pathogens such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza, and rhinoviruses are transmitted by airborne aerosol respiratory particles that are exhaled by infectious subjects. We have previously reported that the emission of aerosol particles increases on average 132-fold from rest to maximal endurance exercise. The aims of this study are to first measure aerosol particle emission during an isokinetic resistance exercise at 80% of the maximal voluntary contraction until exhaustion, second to compare aerosol particle emission during a typical spinning class session versus a three-set resistance training session. Finally, we then used this data to calculate the risk of infection during endurance and resistance exercise sessions with different mitigation strategies. During a set of isokinetic resistance exercise, aerosol particle emission increased 10-fold from 5,400 ± 1,200 particles/min at rest to 59,000 ± 69,900 particles/min during a set of resistance exercise. We found that aerosol particle emission per minute is on average 4.9-times lower during a resistance training session than during a spinning class. Using this data, we determined that the simulated infection risk increase during an endurance exercise session was sixfold higher than during a resistance exercise session when assuming one infected participant in the class. Collectively, this data helps to select mitigation measures for indoor resistance and endurance exercise classes at times where the risk of aerosol-transmitted infectious disease with severe outcomes is high.

Lung aerosol particle emission increases with age at rest and during exercise.

Airborne respiratory aerosol particle transmission of pathogens such as severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza, or rhinoviruses plays a major role in the spread of infectious diseases. The infection risk is increased during indoor exercise, as aerosol particle emission can increase by more than 100-fold from rest to maximal exercise. Earlier studies have investigated the effect of factors such as age, sex, and body mass index (BMI), but only at rest and without taking ventilation into account. Here, we report that during both rest and exercise, subjects aged 60 to 76 y emit on average more than twice as many aerosol particles per minute than subjects aged 20 to 39 y. In terms of volume, older subjects emit on average five times as much dry volume (i.e., the residue of dried aerosol particles) than younger subjects. There was no statistically significant effect of sex or BMI within the test group. Together, this suggests that aging of the lung and respiratory tract is associated with an increased generation of aerosol particles irrespective of ventilation. Our findings demonstrate that age and exercise increase aerosol particle emission. In contrast, sex or BMI only have minor effects.

Aerosol particle emission increases exponentially above moderate exercise intensity resulting in superemission during maximal exercise.

Many airborne pathogens such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are transmitted indoors via aerosol particles. During exercise, pulmonary ventilation can increase over 10-fold, and therefore, exercisers will exhale a greater volume of aerosol-containing air. However, we currently do not know how exercise affects the concentration of aerosol particles in exhaled air and the overall emission of aerosol particles. Consequently, we developed a method to measure in parallel the concentration of aerosol particles in expired air, pulmonary ventilation, and aerosol particle emission at rest and during a graded exercise test to exhaustion. We used this method to test eight women and eight men in a descriptive study. We found that the aerosol particle concentration in expired air increased significantly from 56 ± 53 particles/liter at rest to 633 ± 422 particles/liter at maximal intensity. Aerosol particle emission per subject increased significantly by a factor of 132 from 580 ± 489 particles/min at rest to a super emission of 76,200 ± 48,000 particles/min during maximal exercise. There were no sex differences in aerosol particle emission, but endurance-training subjects emitted significantly more aerosol particles during maximal exercise than untrained subjects. Overall, aerosol particle emission increased moderately up to an exercise intensity of ∼2 W/kg and exponentially thereafter. Together, these data might partly explain superspreader events especially during high-intensity group exercise indoors and suggest that strong infection prevention measures are needed especially during exercise at an intensity that exceeds ∼2 W/kg. Investigations of influencing factors like airway and whole-body hydration status during exercise on aerosol particle generation are needed.

Flow profiles near receding three-phase contact lines: influence of surfactants.

The dynamics of wetting and dewetting is largely determined by the velocity field near the contact lines. For water drops it has been observed that adding surfactant decreases the dynamic receding contact angle even at a concentration much lower than the critical micelle concentration (CMC). To better understand why surfactants have such a drastic effect on drop dynamics, we constructed a dedicated setup on an inverted microscope, in which an aqueous drop is held stationary while the transparent substrate is moved horizontally. Using astigmatism particle tracking velocimetry, we track the 3D displacement of the tracer particles in the flow. We study how surfactants alter the flow dynamics near the receding contact line of a moving drop for capillary numbers in the order of 10-6. Even for surfactant concentrations c far below the critical micelle concentration (c ≪ CMC) Marangoni stresses change the flow drastically. We discuss our results first in a 2D model that considers advective and diffusive surfactant transport and deduce estimates of the magnitude and scaling of the Marangoni stress from this. Modeling and experiment agree that a tiny gradient in surface tension of a few µN m-1 is enough to alter the flow profile significantly. The variation of the Marangoni stress with the distance from the contact line suggests that the 2D advection-diffusion model has to be extended to a full 3D model. The effect is ubiquitous, since surfactant is present in many technical and natural dewetting processes either deliberately or as contamination.

Fundamental protective mechanisms of face masks against droplet infections.

Many governments have instructed the population to wear simple mouse-and-nose covers or surgical face masks to protect themselves from droplet infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in public. However, the basic protection mechanisms and benefits of these masks remain controversial. Therefore, the aim of this work is to show from a fluid physics point of view under which circumstances these masks can protect against droplet infection. First of all, we show that the masks protect people in the surrounding area quite well, since the flow resistance of the face masks effectively prevents the spread of exhaled air, e.g. when breathing, speaking, singing, coughing and sneezing. Secondly, we provide visual evidence that typical household materials used by the population to make masks do not provide highly efficient protection against respirable particles and droplets with a diameter of 0.3-2 µm as they pass through the materials largely unfiltered. According to our tests, only vacuum cleaner bags with fine dust filters show a comparable or even better filtering effect than commercial particle filtering FFP2/N95/KN95 half masks. Thirdly, we show that even simple mouse-and-nose covers made of good filter material cannot reliably protect against droplet infection in contaminated ambient air, since most of the air flows through gaps at the edge of the masks. Only a close-fitting, particle-filtering respirator offers good self-protection against droplet infection. Nevertheless, wearing simple homemade or surgical face masks in public is highly recommended if no particle filtrating respiratory mask is available. Firstly, because they protect against habitual contact of the face with the hands and thus serve as self-protection against contact infection. Secondly, because the flow resistance of the masks ensures that the air remains close to the head when breathing, speaking, singing, coughing and sneezing, thus protecting other people if they have sufficient distance from each other. However, if the distance rules cannot be observed and the risk of inhalation-based infection becomes high because many people in the vicinity are infectious and the air exchange rate is small, improved filtration efficiency masks are needed, to take full advantage of the three fundamental protective mechanisms these masks provide.

Surfactant-driven flow transitions in evaporating droplets.

An evaporating droplet is a dynamic system in which flow is spontaneously generated to minimize the surface energy, dragging particles to the borders and ultimately resulting in the so-called "coffee-stain effect". The situation becomes more complex at the droplet's surface, where surface tension gradients of different natures can compete with each other yielding different scenarios. With careful experiments and with the aid of 3D particle tracking techniques, we are able to show that different types of surfactants turn the droplet's surface either rigid or elastic, which alters the evaporating fluid flow, either enhancing the classical coffee-stain effect or leading to a total flow inversion. Our measurements lead to unprecedented and detailed measurements of the surface tension difference along the evaporating droplet's surface with good temporal and spatial resolution.

Macroscopic three-dimensional particle location using stereoscopic imaging and astigmatic aberrations.

This Letter presents a stereoscopic imaging concept for measuring the locations of particles in three-dimensional space. The method is derived from astigmatism particle tracking velocimetry (APTV), a powerful technique that is capable of determining 3D particle locations with a single camera. APTV locates particle xy coordinates with high accuracy, while the particle z coordinate has a larger location uncertainty. This is not a problem for 3D2C (i.e., three dimensions, two velocity components) measurements, but for highly three-dimensional flows, it is desirable to measure three velocity components with similar accuracy. The stereoscopic APTV approach discussed in this report has this capability. The technique employs APTV for giving an initial estimate of the particle locations. With this information, corresponding particle images on both sensors of the stereoscopic imaging system are matched. Particle locations are then determined by mapping the two particle image sensor locations to physical space. The measurement error of stereo APTV, determined by acquiring images of 1-µm DEHS particles in a 40 mm×40 mm×20 mm measurement volume in air at Δxyz→0 between two frames, is less than 0.012 mm for xy and 0.025 mm for z. This error analysis proves the excellent suitability of stereo APTV for the measurement of three-dimensional flows in macroscopic domains.

Three-dimensional location of micrometer-sized particles in macroscopic domains using astigmatic aberrations.

This Letter presents a theoretical and experimental image formation study in the presence of astigmatic aberrations. A three-dimensional, macroscopic location scheme of micrometer-sized particles for the single camera astigmatism particle tracking velocimetry (APTV) technique is introduced. Average particle z position determination errors of the technique are as low as 0.33%, with a measurement depth of 40 mm. These accuracies show APTV's ability of measuring volumetric velocity fields in macroscopic domains with limited optical access.

Enhanced particle separation through ultrasonically-induced microbubble streaming for automated size-selective particle depletion.

In this study, we present an automated method for achieving Size-Selective Particle Depletion in microchannels. This technique is notable for its label-free, sheath-free, and cost-effective attributes. It combines continuous Poiseuille flow with microbubble streaming to enable the manipulation of particles in an automatic or semi-automatic manner at periodic intervals. Larger particles are retained in proximity to the microbubble, with the option for subsequent eviction through a designated waste exit or their accumulation within a collection chamber for future analysis or manipulation. Unlike many conventional methods, our approach keeps the target particles in the vortices near the microbubble while the primary fluid flows continuously through the microchannel. Subsequently, these particles are ejected in just a few milliseconds, preserving the primary fluid and significantly reducing fluid wastage. We conducted an analysis covering multiple critical facets of the study. This included a rigorous statistical examination, flow characterization using volumetric micro PTV, high-frequency micro PTV for observing flow field transitions, evaluating the system's particle trapping capabilities across different sizes with a proprietary algorithm, and investigating the z-axis distribution of both incoming and escaped particles using volumetric micro PTV. The invaluable insights gleaned from this data played a pivotal role in refining the system and optimizing its operational parameters to achieve peak efficiency across various conditions, encompassing varying particle sizes, flow rates, and seeding densities.

Indices of airway resistance and reactance from impulse oscillometry correlate with aerosol particle emission in different age groups.

Airborne transmission of pathogens plays a major role in the spread of infectious diseases. Aerosol particle production from the lung is thought to occur in the peripheral airways. In the present study we investigated eighty lung-healthy subjects of two age groups (20-39, 60-76 years) at rest and during exercise whether lung function parameters indicative of peripheral airway function were correlated with individual differences in aerosol particle emission. Lung function comprised spirometry and impulse oscillometry during quiet breathing and an expiratory vital capacity manoeuvre, using resistance (R5) and reactance at 5 Hz (X5) as indicators potentially related to peripheral airway function. The association between emission at different ventilation rates relative to maximum ventilation and lung function was assessed by regression analysis. In multiple regression analyses including age group, only vital capacity manoeuvre R5 at 15% to 50% of end-expiratory vital capacity as well as quiet breathing X5 were independently linked to particle emission at 20% to 50% of maximum ventilation, in addition to age group. The fact that age as predictive factor was still significant, although to a lower degree, points towards further effects of age, potentially involving surface properties not accounted for by impulse oscillometry parameters.

Logarithmic boundary layers in strong Taylor-Couette turbulence.

We provide direct measurements of the boundary layer properties in highly turbulent Taylor-Couette flow up to Re=2×106) (Ta=6.2×10(12)) using high-resolution particle image velocimetry and particle tracking velocimetry. We find that the mean azimuthal velocity profile at the inner and outer cylinder can be fitted by the von Kármán log law u+=1/κ lny+ +B. The von Kármán constant κ is found to depend on the driving strength Ta and for large Ta asymptotically approaches κ≈0.40. The variance profiles of the local azimuthal velocity have a universal peak around y+≈12 and collapse when rescaled with the driving velocity (and not with the friction velocity), displaying a log dependence of y+ as also found for channel and pipe flows.

Formation of a polymer surface with a gradient of pore size using a microfluidic chip.

Here we demonstrate the generation of polymer monolithic surfaces possessing a gradient of pore and polymer globule sizes from ~0.1 to ~0.5 µm defined by the composition of two polymerization mixtures injected into a microfluidic chip. To generate the gradient, we used a PDMS microfluidic chip with a cascade micromixer with a subsequent reaction chamber for the formation of a continuous gradient film. The micromixer has zigzag channels of 400 × 680 µm(2) cross section and six cascades. The chip was used with a reversible bonding connection, realized by curing agent coating. After polymerization in the microfluidic chip the reversible bond was opened, resulting in a 450 µm thick polymer film possessing the pore size gradient. The gradient formation in the microfluidic reaction chamber was studied using microscopic laser-induced fluorescence (µLIF) and different model fluids. Formation of linear gradients was shown using the fluids of the same density by both diffusive mixing at flow rates of 0.001 mL/min and in a convective mixing regime at flow rates of 20 mL/min. By using different density fluids, formation of a two-dimensional wedge-like gradient controlled by the density difference and orientation of the microfluidic chip was observed.

Parallax correction for precise near-wall flow investigations using particle imaging.

For the basic understanding of turbulence generation in wall-bounded flows, precise measurements of the mean velocity profile and the mean velocity fluctuations very close to the wall are essential. Therefore, three techniques are established for high-resolution velocity profile measurements close to solid surfaces: (1) the nanoprobe sensor developed at Princeton University, which is a miniaturization of a classical hot-wire probe [Exp. Fluids 51, 1521 (2011)]; (2) the laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) profile sensor, which allows measurement of the location of the particles inside the probe volume using a superposition of two fringe systems [Exp. Fluids 40, 473 (2006)]; and (3) the combination of particle image velocimetry and tracking techniques (PIV/PTV), which identify the location and velocity of submicrometer particles within the flow with digital imaging techniques [Exp. Fluids 52, 1641 (2006)]. The last technique is usually considered less accurate and precise than the other two. However, in addition to the measurement precision, the effect of the probe size, the position error, and errors due to vibrations of the model, test facility, or measurement equipment have to be considered. Taking these into account, the overall accuracy of the PTV technique can be superior, as all these effects can be compensated for. However, for very accurate PTV measurements close to walls, it is necessary to compensate the perspective error, which occurs for particles not located on the optical axis. In this paper, we outline a detailed analysis for this bias error and procedures for its compensation. To demonstrate the capability of the approach, we measured a turbulent boundary layer at Re(δ)=0.4×10(6) and applied the proposed methods.

Numerical and experimental characterization of a novel modular passive micromixer.

This paper reports a new low-cost passive microfluidic mixer design, based on a replication of identical mixing units composed of microchannels with variable curvature (clothoid) geometry. The micromixer presents a compact and modular architecture that can be easily fabricated using a simple and reliable fabrication process. The particular clothoid-based geometry enhances the mixing by inducing transversal secondary flows and recirculation effects. The role of the relevant fluid mechanics mechanisms promoting the mixing in this geometry were analysed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for Reynolds numbers ranging from 1 to 110. A measure of mixing potency was quantitatively evaluated by calculating mixing efficiency, while a measure of particle dispersion was assessed through the lacunarity index. The results show that the secondary flow arrangement and recirculation effects are able to provide a mixing efficiency equal to 80 % at Reynolds number above 70. In addition, the analysis of particles distribution promotes the lacunarity as powerful tool to quantify the dispersion of fluid particles and, in turn, the overall mixing. On fabricated micromixer prototypes the microscopic-Laser-Induced-Fluorescence (µLIF) technique was applied to characterize mixing. The experimental results confirmed the mixing potency of the microdevice.

In situ analysis of three-dimensional electrolyte convection evolving during the electrodeposition of copper in magnetic gradient fields.

A novel three-dimensional particle tracking velocimetry technique was used to examine the flow during electrodeposition of Cu. For the first time electrode-normal, circumferential, and radial velocities were spatially resolved during deposition in superimposed low and high magnetic gradient fields. In this way the complex interaction of magnetic field gradient force and Lorentz force induced convective effects could be measured and analyzed. Magnetic field gradient force induced electrolyte flow was detected only in high gradient magnetic fields, and it was found to be directed toward regions of gradient maxima. Since this electrode-normal flow causes enhanced transport of Cu(2+) ions from the bulk electrolyte to those regions of the working electrode where maxima of magnetic gradients are present, a structured deposit is formed during diffusion-limited electrodeposition. Lorentz force driven convection was observed during deposition in the low and the high magnetic gradient experiments. The overall fluid motion and the convection near the working electrode were determined experimentally and discussed with regard to the acting magnetic forces and numerical simulations.

Interfacial flows in sessile evaporating droplets of mineral water.

Liquid flow in sessile evaporating droplets of ultrapure water typically results from two main contributions: a capillary flow pushing the liquid toward the contact line from the bulk and a thermal Marangoni flow pulling the drop free surface toward the summit. Current analytical and numerical models are in good qualitative agreement with experimental observations; however, they overestimate the interfacial velocity values by two to three orders of magnitude. This discrepancy is generally ascribed to contamination of the water samples with nonsoluble surfactants; however, an experimental confirmation of this assumption has not yet been provided. In this work, we show that a small "ionic contamination" can cause a significant effect in the flow pattern inside the droplet. To provide the proof, we compare the flow in evaporating droplets of ultrapure water with commercially available bottled water of different mineralization levels. Mineral waters are bottled at natural springs, are microbiologically pure, and contain only traces of minerals (as well as traces of other possible contaminants), and therefore one would expect a slower interfacial flow as the amount of "contaminants" increase. Surprisingly, our results show that the magnitude of the interfacial flow is practically the same for mineral waters with low content of minerals as that of ultrapure water. However, for waters with larger content of minerals, the interfacial flow tends to slow down due to the presence of ionic concentration gradients. Our results show a much more complex scenario than it has been typically suspected and therefore a deeper and more comprehensive analysis of the huge differences between numerical models and experiments is necessary.

Clogging in constricted suspension flows.

The flow of a charged-stabilized suspension through a single constricted channel is studied experimentally by tracking the particles individually. Surprisingly, the behavior is found to be qualitatively similar to that of inertial dry granular systems: For small values of the neck-to-particle size ratio (D/d<3), clogs form randomly as arches of the particle span the constriction. The statistics of the clogging events are Poissonian as reported for granular systems and agree for moderate particle volume fraction (ϕ≈20%) with a simple stochastic model for the number of particles at the neck. For larger neck sizes (D/d>3), even at the largest ϕ(≈60%) achievable in the experiments, an uninterrupted particle flow is observed, which resembles that of an hourglass. This particularly small value of D/d(≃3) at the transition to a practically uninterrupted flow is attributed to the low effective friction between the particles, achieved by the particle's functionalization and lubrication.

General defocusing particle tracking.

A General Defocusing Particle Tracking (GDPT) method is proposed for tracking the three-dimensional motion of particles in Lab-on-a-chip systems based on a set of calibration images and the normalized cross-correlation function. In comparison with other single-camera defocusing particle-tracking techniques, GDPT possesses a series of key advantages: it is applicable to particle images of arbitrary shapes, it is intuitive and easy to use, it can be used without advanced knowledge of optics and velocimetry theory, it is robust against outliers and overlapping particle images, and it requires only equipment which is standard in microfluidic laboratories. We demonstrate the method by tracking the three-dimensional motion of 2 µm spherical particles in a microfluidic channel using three different optical arrangements. The position of the particles was measured with an estimated uncertainty of 0.1 µm in the in-plane direction and 2 µm in the depth direction for a measurement volume of 1510 × 1270 × 160 µm(3). A ready-to-use GUI implementation of the method can be acquired on .

Growth control of sessile microbubbles in PDMS devices.

In a microfluidic environment, the presence of bubbles is often detrimental to the functionality of the device, leading to clogging or cavitation, but microbubbles can also be an indispensable asset in other applications such as microstreaming. In either case, it is crucial to understand and control the growth or shrinkage of these bodies of air, in particular in common soft-lithography devices based on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which is highly permeable to gases. In this work, we study the gas transport into and out of a bubble positioned in a microfluidic device, taking into account the direct gas exchange through PDMS as well as the transport of gas through the liquid in the device. Hydrostatic pressure regulation allows for the quantitative control of growth, shrinkage, or the attainment of a stable equilibrium bubble size. We find that the vapor pressure of the liquid plays an important role for the balance of gas transport, accounting for variability in experimental conditions and suggesting additional means of bubble size control in applications.

Simultaneous three-dimensional temperature and velocity field measurements using astigmatic imaging of non-encapsulated thermo-liquid crystal (TLC) particles.

A combination of cutting edge developments is presented to characterize three-dimensional (3D) temperature and velocity fields in microscopic flows. An emulsion of non-encapsulated thermo-liquid crystal (TLC) micro spheres, with a narrow size distribution is used to track the flow's motion and temperature distribution. A state-of-the-art light engine, which combines the spectrum of six light pipes, provides a balanced illumination which allows for strong and detectable color patterns across the TLC's temperature response range. Lastly, the ability of the TLC material to reflect select wavelength bands with an unchanging and independent circular polarization chirality is exploited by a filter that blocks background noise, while exclusively transmitting the color signal of the TLC particles. This approach takes advantage of the peculiar physical properties of TLCs to allow the estimation of individual TLC particle's 3D position, for the first time, using Astigmatism Particle Tracking Velocimetry (APTV).