Regulation and spatial organization of PCNA in Trypanosoma brucei.

As in most eukaryotic cells, replication is regulated by a conserved group of proteins in the early-diverged parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Only a few components of the replication machinery have been described in this parasite and regulation, sub-nuclear localization and timing of replication are not well understood. We characterized the proliferating cell nuclear antigen in T. brucei (TbPCNA) to establish a spatial and temporal marker for replication. Interestingly, PCNA distribution and regulation is different compared to the closely related parasites Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania donovani. TbPCNA foci are clearly detectable during S phase of the cell cycle but in contrast to T. cruzi they are not preferentially located at the nuclear periphery. Furthermore, PCNA seems to be degraded when cells enter G2 phase in T. brucei suggesting different modes of replication regulation or functions of PCNA in these closely related eukaryotes.

Aroyl hydrazones of 2-phenylindole-3-carbaldehydes as novel antimitotic agents.

Cell cycle arrest of malignant cells is an important option for cancer treatment. In this study, we modified the structure of antimitotic 2-phenylindole-3-carbaldehydes by condensation with hydrazides of various benzoic and pyridine carboxylic acids. The resulting hydrazones inhibited the growth of MDA-MB 231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells with IC(50) values of 20-30 nM for the most potent derivatives. These 2-phenylindole derivatives also exerted an inhibitory effect on the growth of both proliferating and resting U-373 MG glioblastoma cells. Though the hydrazones exhibited similar structure-activity relationships as the aldehydes, they did not inhibit tubulin polymerization as the aldehydes but were capable of blocking the cell cycle in G(2)/M phase. The cell cycle arrest was accompanied by apoptosis as demonstrated by the activation of caspase-3. Since these 2-phenylindole-based hydrazones display no structural similarity with other antitumor drugs they are interesting candidates for further development.

'Pushing the limits of understanding': the discourse on primitivism in German Kulturwissenschaften, 1880-1930.

This paper addresses the significance of primitivism as a figure of thought during the emergence of Kulturwissenschaften--consisting of different fields of knowledge and disciplines--in Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century. Two interrelated problems in particular shaped the scholarly discourse on primitivism: first, the question of the existence and modes of operation of 'other' forms of thought and consciousness. Second, the epistemological question how these 'other' forms of thought could be recognized if the researcher him or herself belonged to a particular historically determined European mode of thought and perception. In this context the art of non-European 'primitives' and of the insane became a central topic. Its cross-disciplinary investigation ultimately arrived at a redefinition of a nexus of problems: the challenge to the old concept of art as well as to the dominant concept of psychopathology, that is, the definition of normality and deviancy. Both the non-European 'natives' and the European 'insane' received new importance as scientific objects for a wider range of fields of knowledge. This process was connected with an articulated need to expand and strengthen the faculty of subjectivity and intuition on the part of the Kulturwissenschaftler for means of investigation and understanding (verstehen). The discourse on primitivism in German Kulturwissenschaften reflected the crisis of knowledge and methology at the beginning of the twentieth century and was finally resolved by taking refuge in phenomenology and holism.

Efficient synthesis of protein-drug conjugates using a functionalizable recombinant elastin-mimetic polypeptide.

This report describes the efficient conjugation of doxorubicin-glycine-phenylalanine-leucine-glycine (1a) and rhodamine-glycine-phenylalanine-leucine-glycine (1b) units to a monodisperse elastin-mimetic polypeptide (EMM)(7) bearing eight primary amine groups for chemical attachment. The synthetic approach is based on the solid-phase synthesis of 1a and 1b followed by chemical conjugation to the elastin-mimetic polypeptide in the presence of HOBt/PyBob as activating agents to form the polypeptide conjugates 2a and 2b. Conjugation efficiency was 61.2% (4.9 doxorubicin units per polypeptide chain) for 2a and 53.7% (4.3 rhodamine units per polypeptide chain) for 2b, demonstrating the feasibility of using these tailor-made, recombinant polypeptides as potential drug carriers for cancer therapy.

Biosynthesis of an elastin-mimetic polypeptide with two different chemical functional groups within the repetitive elastin fragment.

A new protein engineering strategy was utilized to synthesize an elastin-mimetic polypeptide. The primary structure represents an elastic motif composed of thirty amino acids with one lysine and one glutamic acid per repeat unit EMM = (VPGVG VPGKG VGPVG VPGVG VPGEG VPGIG). The gene was constructed using a Seamless Cloning method by generating three DNA cassettes which all encoded the EMM repeat unit, but with different flanking restriction recognition sites. The DNA cassettes were assembled to yield a gene that could be directly cloned into the multiple cloning site of pBluescript II SK+. The resulting gene (EMM)(7) with approximately 650 base pairs in length was further cloned into the expression vector pET-28b. Protein biosynthesis in E. coli strain BLR(DE3) resulted in the 21.5 kDa repeating polypeptide His(6)-(EMM)(7) yielding up to 50 mg . L(-1) of cell culture. Secondary structure analysis by far UV circular dichroism revealed a minimum at 197 nm and a shoulder at 218 nm indicative for a random coil with some type II beta-turn conformation content. Lower critical solution temperature (LCST) behavior strongly depends on salt and polypeptide concentration. Importantly, first cross-linking experiments indicate successful hydrogel formation with a surface structure reminiscent to natural elastin as visualized by SEM micrographs.

Chemical conjugation of linear and cyclic RGD moieties to a recombinant elastin-mimetic polypeptide--a versatile approach towards bioactive protein hydrogels.

An elastin-mimetic polypeptide, (EMM)(7), with the amino-acid sequence GRDPSS [VPGVG VPGKG VPGVG VPGVG VPGEG VPGIG](7) was used for chemical conjugation of various integrin ligands (RGD peptides) to prepare bioactive hydrogels. The chemical approach involved (1) chemical protection of lysine residues with Fmoc or Boc groups, (2) chemical ligation of a protected linear or cyclic RGD ligand, with or without a hexanoic-acid spacer to the glutamic acid residue, (3) deprotection of the lysine functionalities and the RGD moieties and (4) cross-linking to form a bioactive hydrogel. (1)H NMR spectroscopy was used to quantify the multiple steps in the reaction. The chemical protection was found to be between 65 and 93% for Fmoc and Boc, respectively. The ligands studied included linear RGD cell-binding [H-FGRGDS-OH (1-l-RGD), H-Ahx--FGRGDS-OH (2-Ahx-FGRGDS) and a cyclic -H(2)N-(CH(2))(6)COHN-cyclo(-RGDfK-) (H-Ahx-c(-RGDfK-)) peptide also with a hexanoic-acid spacer. Cell adhesion with mouse osteoblast cells was dependent on the ligand type, ligand density and the use of a spacer.

[(2-Phenylindol-3-yl)methylene]propanedinitriles inhibit the growth of breast cancer cells by cell cycle arrest in G(2)/M phase and apoptosis.

Cell cycle arrest of malignant cells is an important option for cancer treatment. In this study, we modified the structure of antimitotic 2-phenylindole-3-carbaldehydes by condensation with malononitrile. The resulting methylene propanedinitriles inhibited the growth of MDA-MB 231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells with IC(50) values below 100 nM. Though they exhibited similar structure-activity relationships as the aldehydes, they did not inhibit tubulin polymerization but were capable of blocking the cell cycle in G(2)/M phase. The cell cycle arrest was accompanied by apoptosis as demonstrated by the activation of caspases 3 and 9. Since the new 2-phenylindole derivatives also inhibited the growth of transplanted MXT mouse mammary tumors, they are interesting candidates for further development.

Antimitotic activities of 2-phenylindole-3-carbaldehydes in human breast cancer cells.

Small molecules such as indoles are attractive as inhibitors of tubulin polymerization. Thus a number of 2-phenylindole-3-carbaldehydes with lipophilic substituents in both aromatic rings was synthesized and evaluated for antitumor activity in MDA-MB 231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Some 5-alkylindole derivatives with a 4-methoxy group in the 2-phenyl ring strongly inhibit the growth of breast cancer cells with IC(50) values of 5-20nM. Their action can be rationalized by the cell cycle arrest in G(2)/M phase due to the inhibition of tubulin polymerization.