Uptake through glycoprotein 2 of FimH(+) bacteria by M cells initiates mucosal immune response.

The mucosal immune system forms the largest part of the entire immune system, containing about three-quarters of all lymphocytes and producing grams of secretory IgA daily to protect the mucosal surface from pathogens. To evoke the mucosal immune response, antigens on the mucosal surface must be transported across the epithelial barrier into organized lymphoid structures such as Peyer's patches. This function, called antigen transcytosis, is mediated by specialized epithelial M cells. The molecular mechanisms promoting this antigen uptake, however, are largely unknown. Here we report that glycoprotein 2 (GP2), specifically expressed on the apical plasma membrane of M cells among enterocytes, serves as a transcytotic receptor for mucosal antigens. Recombinant GP2 protein selectively bound a subset of commensal and pathogenic enterobacteria, including Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), by recognizing FimH, a component of type I pili on the bacterial outer membrane. Consistently, these bacteria were colocalized with endogenous GP2 on the apical plasma membrane as well as in cytoplasmic vesicles in M cells. Moreover, deficiency of bacterial FimH or host GP2 led to defects in transcytosis of type-I-piliated bacteria through M cells, resulting in an attenuation of antigen-specific immune responses in Peyer's patches. GP2 is therefore a previously unrecognized transcytotic receptor on M cells for type-I-piliated bacteria and is a prerequisite for the mucosal immune response to these bacteria. Given that M cells are considered a promising target for oral vaccination against various infectious diseases, the GP2-dependent transcytotic pathway could provide a new target for the development of M-cell-targeted mucosal vaccines.

Pancreatic glycoprotein 2 is a first line of defense for mucosal protection in intestinal inflammation.

Increases in adhesive and invasive commensal bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, and subsequent disruption of the epithelial barrier is implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, the protective systems against such barrier disruption are not fully understood. Here, we show that secretion of luminal glycoprotein 2 (GP2) from pancreatic acinar cells is induced in a TNF-dependent manner in mice with chemically induced colitis. Fecal GP2 concentration is also increased in Crohn's diease patients. Furthermore, pancreas-specific GP2-deficient colitis mice have more severe intestinal inflammation and a larger mucosal E. coli population than do intact mice, indicating that digestive-tract GP2 binds commensal E. coli, preventing epithelial attachment and penetration. Thus, the pancreas-intestinal barrier axis and pancreatic GP2 are important as a first line of defense against adhesive and invasive commensal bacteria during intestinal inflammation.

Early-onset podocyte injury and glomerular sclerosis in osborne-mendel rats.

Progressive glomerular injury associated with early-onset proteinuria was investigated in male Osborne-Mendel (OM) rats aged 5 to 20 weeks. Age-matched male Fischer 344 (F344) rats were used for comparison. OM rats developed mild hypertension and selective proteinuria (albuminuria) from 5 weeks of age, and non-selective proteinuria from 7 weeks of age. Light microscopy of OM kidney revealed hyaline droplets in the podocyte at 5 weeks of age and vacuolation of podocytes and adhesion of the capillary loop to the Bowman's capsule at 7 weeks of age. Segmental glomerulosclerosis developed in OM rats from 15 weeks of age, and global sclerosis appeared at 20 weeks of age. Desmin, a marker of podocye injury, was expressed in podocytes from 10 weeks of age, and the intensity of expression increased with age. Ultrastructurally, damage to podocytes such as effacement of foot processes, decreasing number of filtration slits, and rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton were observed from 5 weeks of age in OM rat. Glomerular volume in OM rats increased with age and was consistently higher than in age-matched F344 rats. The number of WT-1-positive podocytes and vimentin-positive podocyte area were lower in OM rats and decreased with age. These findings suggest that glomerulonephropathy in male OM rats is associated with glomerular hypertrophy, progressive podocytopathy, and a reduction in podocyte number and area. Renal injury in OM rats was associated with development of early-onset proteinuria and was more progressive than in age-matched F344 rats.

Construction of an open-access database that integrates cross-reference information from the transcriptome and proteome of immune cells.

MOTIVATION: Although a huge amount of mammalian genomic data does become publicly available, there are still hurdles for biologists to overcome before such data can be fully exploited. One of the challenges for gaining biological insight from genomic data has been the inability to cross-reference transcriptomic and proteomic data using a single informational platform. To address this, we constructed an open-access database that enabled us to cross-reference transcriptomic and proteomic data obtained from immune cells. RESULTS: The database, named RefDIC (Reference genomics Database of Immune Cells), currently contains: (i) quantitative mRNA profiles for human and mouse immune cells/tissues obtained using Affymetrix GeneChip technology; (ii) quantitative protein profiles for mouse immune cells obtained using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) followed by image analysis and mass spectrometry and (iii) various visualization tools to cross-reference the mRNA and protein profiles of immune cells. RefDIC is the first open-access database for immunogenomics and serves as an important information-sharing platform, enabling a focused genomic approach in immunology. AVAILABILITY: All raw data and information can be accessed from http://refdic.rcai.riken.jp/. The microarray data is also available at http://cibex.nig.ac.jp/ under CIBEX accession no. CBX19, and http://www.ebi.ac.uk/pride/ under PRIDE accession numbers 2354-2378 and 2414.

Psg18 is specifically expressed in follicle-associated epithelium.

Pregnancy-specific glycoproteins (Psgs) secreted by the placenta regulate the immune system to ensure the survival of the fetal allograft by inducing IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine. However, it is unknown whether Psgs are involved in more general aspects of immune response other than maternal immunity. Here, we report that Psg18 is highly expressed in the follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) overlaying Peyer's patches (PPs). Bioinformatics analysis with Reference Database for Immune Cells (RefDIC) as well as RT-PCR data demonstrated that Psg18 is exclusively expressed in FAE in adult mice, in contrast to other Psg family members that are either not expressed or only slightly expressed in FAE. Psg18 expression was observed in FAE of germ-free-conditioned mice, and was slightly upregulated after bacterial inoculation. In situ hybridization analysis revealed that Psg18 is widely expressed throughout FAE. Furthermore, Psg18 protein is deposited on the extracellular matrix in the subepithelial dome beneath FAE, where antigen-presenting cells accumulate. These results suggest that Psg18 is an FAE-specific marker protein that could promote interplay between FAE and immune cells in mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues.

Recovery from heat shock injury by activation of Na+-glucose cotransporter in renal epithelial cells.

Exposure of cells or organs to sublethal physical or chemical stresses induces disruption of cellular structures and functions. Here, we examined whether Na(+)-glucose cotransporter (SGLT1) is involved in the recovery from heat shock (HS) injury in porcine renal epithelial LLC-PK(1) cells. Recovery from HS (42 degrees C for 3 h, then 37 degrees C for 12 h) increased SGLT1 activity, assessed by [14C]alpha-methyl glucopyranoside uptake, and a maximal transport rate (V(max)) from 2.4 to 5.9 nmol/mg protein/30 min, but did not alter an apparent affinity constant (K(m)). Protein distribution of SGLT1 in apical membrane fraction was also increased after recovery from HS without changing in total membrane fraction. Membrane integrity assessed by calcein accumulation was decreased by HS, and then returned to basal level. This recovery was inhibited by phloridzin, a potent SGLT1 inhibitor, and nonmetabolizable glucose analogues. Anti-transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) antibody inhibited both elevation of SGLT1 distribution in apical membrane and recovery of calcein accumulation induced by HS. Taken together, HS increases in the number of SGLT1 protein in apical membrane mediated via TGF-beta 1 signaling pathway. The increase of glucose uptake is necessary to repair plasma membrane integrity.

Lysophosphatidic acid induces exocytic trafficking of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 3 by E3KARP-dependent activation of phospholipase C.

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) stimulates Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 3 (NHE3) activity in opossum kidney proximal tubule (OK) cells by increasing the apical membrane amount of NHE3. This occurs by stimulation of exocytic trafficking of NHE3 to the apical plasma membrane by an E3KARP-dependent mechanism. However, it is still unclear how E3KARP leads to the LPA-induced exocytosis of NHE3. In the current study, we demonstrate that stable expression of exogenous E3KARP increases LPA-induced phospholipase C (PLC) activation and subsequent elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) in opossum kidney proximal tubule (OK) cells. Pretreatment with U73122, a PLC inhibitor, prevented the LPA-induced NHE3 activation and the exocytic trafficking of NHE3. To understand how the elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) leads to the stimulation of NHE3, we pretreated OK cells with BAPTA-AM, an intracellular Ca(2+) chelator. BAPTA-AM completely blocked the LPA-induced increase of NHE3 activity and surface NHE3 amount by decreasing the LPA-induced exocytic trafficking of NHE3. Pretreatment with GF109203X, a PKC inhibitor, did not affect the percent of LPA-induced NHE3 activation and increase of surface NHE3 amount. From these results, we suggest that E3KARP plays a necessary role in LPA-induced PLC activation, and that PLC-dependent elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) but not PKC activation is necessary for the LPA-induced increase of NHE3 exocytosis.

Pathogenesis of obesity by food restriction in OLETF rats-increased intestinal monoacylglycerol acyltransferase activities may be a crucial factor.

UNLABELLED: Obesity was considered to be one of the causes of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). However, the mechanism responsible for obesity has not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, we first examined the relationship between food intake amount and obesity in a NIDDM model animal, and then we focused on triacylglycerol (TG) synthetase activity, which play important roles in hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) associated with obesity. Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rat is an animal model of NIDDM, characterized by obesity, HTG and insulin resistance. In this study, OLETF rats were allocated to a food-satiated group (satiated) or food-restricted group (to eliminate the effects of hyperphagia on obesity, amount of daily food intake was the same as that in their control strain Long-Evans Tokushima Otsuka (LETO) rats). Changes in body weight, body fat, intraabdominal fat weight, and TG content in liver were measured and biochemical blood tests and activity assay of TG synthetase (monoacylglycerol acyltransferase (MGAT) and diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT)) were performed. RESULTS: (1) The body weight in the restricted OLETF rats was significantly decreased to 71.7% of that in the satiated OLETF rats, which was almost the same value as that in the LETO rats. However, body fat and intraabdominal fat weight were significantly increased in restricted OLETF rats and satiated OLETF rats compared with LETO rats. (2) Plasma TG, insulin, glucose, leptin and hepatic TG content were significantly higher in OLETF rats than the values in LETO rats. (3) MGAT activity in the small intestine from both satiated and restricted OLETF rats was significantly higher than that in LETO rats. DGAT activity in OLETF rats was not significantly different from that in LETO rats. In conclusion, the body fat weight and plasma TG were still significantly accelerated in OLETF rats at the same food intake as LETO rats. MGAT activity in the small intestine from OLETF rats was also significantly higher than those of LETO rats. Therefore, high MGAT activity in the small intestine may play an important role in HTG and obesity, subsequently hastening the development of NIDDM in OLETF rats.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase mediates inhibitory effect of angiotensin II on sodium/glucose cotransporter in renal epithelial cells.

Effects of angiotensin II (ANGII) on regulation of sodium/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1) activity were investigated in LLC-PK(1) cells, renal proximal epithelial cell line. ANGII inhibited alpha-[14C] methyl-D-glucopyranoside (AMG) uptake into LLC-PK(1) cells in a dose-dependent manner. This inhibition was based on a decrease in maximal transport rate (Vmax) of AMG from 2.20 nmol/mg protein/15 min to 1.19 nmol/mg protein/15 min, although apparent affinity constant (Km) did not alter. In western blot analysis, protein level of SGLT1 in brush border membrane (BBM) was decreased by ANGII, although total SGLT1 was not altered. In the aspect of intracellular signal transduction, ANGII blocked the formation of cAMP. Pertussis toxin, an inactivator of Gi protein that control intracellular cAMP level, completely prevented the decrease of AMG uptake caused by ANGII. 8-Br-cAMP, a cell membrane permeable cAMP analogue, increased AMG uptake and protein level of SGLT1 in BBM. Both wortmannin and LY294002 that are phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase inhibitors, inhibited the SGLT1 activity, and also attenuated the effect of 8-Br-cAMP on SGLT1 activity. Those inhibitors prevented the 8-Br-cAMP-induced expression of SGLT1 in plasma membrane. We conclude that ANGII plays an important role in post-translational regulation in SGLT1. Inhibition of SGLT1 translocation is suggested to be caused by inactivation of protein kinase A and decrease of PI 3-kinase activity.

The membrane-bound chemokine CXCL16 expressed on follicle-associated epithelium and M cells mediates lympho-epithelial interaction in GALT.

The recently identified CXCL16 has dual functions as a transmembrane adhesion molecule and a soluble chemokine. In this study we found that CXCL16 mRNA and protein were expressed constitutively on the follicle-associated epithelium covering Peyer's patches (PPs), isolated lymphoid follicles, and cecal patches, but minimally on the villous epithelium in the murine gastrointestinal tract. The CXCL16 receptor CXCR6/Bonzo was constitutively expressed on subpopulations of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells isolated from PPs. The expression of CXCR6/Bonzo on the PP T cells was up-regulated after stimulation with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 mAbs. The activated PP T cells showed chemotactic migration in response to the soluble N-terminal chemokine domain of CXCL16. Furthermore, the activated PP T cells selectively adhered to cells expressing murine CXCL16. To determine the physiological role of CXCL16 in GALT, we first carefully analyzed T cell distribution in PPs. T cells localized not only in the interfollicular region but also at a lesser frequency in the subepithelial dome (SED) and in the germinal center of lymphoid follicles. Consistently, the majority of the adoptive transferred activated T cells migrated into the SED and the interfollicular region. However, the neutralization of CXCL16 specifically reduced the migration of the adoptive, transferred, activated T cells into the SED of PPs. These data suggest that CXCL16 expressed on the follicle-associated epithelium plays an important role in the recruitment and retention of activated T cells in the SED and should, at least partially, be responsible for lymphocyte compartmentalization in GALT.

Distinct gene expression profiles characterize cellular phenotypes of follicle-associated epithelium and M cells.

Follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) covering Peyer's patches contains specialized epithelial M cells that take up ingested macromolecules and microorganisms from the lumen of the gut by transcytosis. Using high-density oligonucleotide microarrays, we analyzed the gene expression profiles of FAE and M cells in order to characterize their cellular phenotypes. The microarray data revealed that, among approximately 14,000 genes, 409 were expressed in FAE at twofold or higher levels compared to the intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) of the villi. These included genes involved in membrane traffic, host defense and transcriptional regulation, as well as uncharacterized genes. Real-time PCR and in situ hybridization analyses identified three molecules, ubiquitin D (Ub-D), tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 12a (TNFRsf12a), and transmembrane 4 superfamily 4 (Tm4sf4), which were predominantly distributed throughout FAE, but were expressed little, if at all, in IECs. By contrast, transcripts of secretory granule neuroendocrine protein 1 (Sgne-1) were scattered in FAE, and were co-localized with Ulex europaeus agglutinin-1 (UEA-1)-positive cells. This clearly suggests that expression of Sgne-1 in the gut is specific to M cells. Such a unique pattern of gene expression distinguishes FAE and M cells from IECs, and may reflect their cellular phenotype(s) associated with specific functional features.

Up-regulation of sodium-dependent glucose transporter by interaction with heat shock protein 70.

Heat shock stress induces some heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, and activates sodium-dependent glucose transport in porcine renal LLC-PK(1) cells, but its mechanisms have not been described in detail. We investigated whether sodium-dependent glucose transporter (SGLT1) interacts with Hsp70 to increase SGLT1 activity. Heat shock stress increased SGLT1 activity without changing SGLT1 expression. The increase of SGLT1 activity was completely inhibited by an anti-transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) antibody. Instead of heat shock stress, TGF-beta1 increased SGLT1 activity dose- and time-dependently without changing SGLT1 expression. We found that the amount of Hsp70 immunoprecipitated from TGF-beta1-treated cells with an anti-SGLT1 antibody was higher than that of the control cells. Transfection of an anti-Hsp70 antibody into the cells inhibited the increase of SGLT1 activity. With confocal laser microscopy, both SGLT1 and Hsp70 was localized near the apical membrane in the TGF-beta1-treated cells, and an anti-Hsp70 antibody disturbed this localization. Furthermore, we clarified that an anti-Hsp70 antibody inhibited interaction of SGLT1 with Hsp70 in vitro. These results suggest that Hsp70 forms a complex with SGLT1 and increases the expression level of SGLT1 in the apical membrane, resulting in up-regulation of glucose uptake.

Lysophosphatidic acid stimulates brush border Na+/H+ exchanger 3 (NHE3) activity by increasing its exocytosis by an NHE3 kinase A regulatory protein-dependent mechanism.

Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 3 (NHE3) kinase A regulatory protein (E3KARP) has been implicated in cAMP- and Ca(2+)-dependent inhibition of NHE3. In the current study, a new role of E3KARP is demonstrated in the stimulation of NHE3 activity. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a mediator of the restitution phase of inflammation but has not been studied for effects on sodium absorption. LPA has no effect on NHE3 activity in opossum kidney (OK) proximal tubule cells, which lack expression of endogenous E3KARP. However, in OK cells exogenously expressing E3KARP, LPA stimulated NHE3 activity. Consistent with the stimulatory effect on NHE3 activity, LPA treatment increased the surface NHE3 amount, which occurred by accelerating exocytic trafficking (endocytic recycling) to the apical plasma membrane. These LPA effects only occurred in OK cells transfected with E3KARP. The LPA-induced increases of NHE3 activity, surface NHE3 amounts, and exocytosis were completely inhibited by pretreatment with the PI 3-kinase inhibitor, LY294002. LPA stimulation of the phosphorylation of Akt was used as an assay for PI 3-kinase activity. LY294002 completely prevented the LPA-induced increase in Akt phosphorylation, which is consistent with the inhibitory effect of LY294002 on the LPA stimulation of NHE3 activity. The LPA-induced phosphorylation of Akt was the same in OK cells with and without E3KARP. These results show that LPA stimulates NHE3 in the apical surface of OK cells by a mechanism that is dependent on both E3KARP and PI 3-kinase. This is the first demonstration that rapid stimulation of NHE3 activity is dependent on an apical membrane PDZ domain protein.

Ca2+-dependent inhibition of NHE3 requires PKC alpha which binds to E3KARP to decrease surface NHE3 containing plasma membrane complexes.

The intestinal brush border (BB) Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 3 (NHE3) is acutely inhibited by elevation in the concentration of free intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) by the cholinergic agonist carbachol and Ca2+ ionophores in a protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent manner. We previously showed that elevating [Ca2+]i with ionomycin rapidly inhibited NHE3 activity and decreased the amount of NHE3 on the plasma membrane in a manner that depended on the presence of the PDZ domain-containing protein E3KARP (NHE3 kinase A regulatory protein, also called NHERF2). The current studies were performed in PS120 fibroblasts (NHE-null cell line) stably transfected with NHE3 and E3KARP to probe the mechanism of PKC involvement in Ca2+ regulation of NHE3. Pretreatment with the general PKC inhibitor, GF109203X prevented ionomycin inhibition of NHE3 without altering basal NHE3 activity. Similarly, the Ca2+-mediated inhibition of NHE3 activity was blocked after pretreatment with the conventional PKC inhibitor Gö-6976 and a specific PKCalpha pseudosubstrate-derived inhibitor peptide. [Ca2+]i elevation caused translocation of PKCalpha from cytosol to membrane. PKCalpha bound to the PDZ1 domain of GST-E3KARP in vitro in a Ca2+-dependent manner. PKCalpha and E3KARP coimmunoprecipitated from cell lysates; this occurred to a lesser extent at basal [Ca2+]i and was increased with ionomycin exposure. Biotinylation studies demonstrated that [Ca2+]i elevation induced oligomerization of NHE3 in total lysates and decreased the amount of plasma membrane NHE3. Treatment with PKC inhibitors did not affect the oligomerization of NHE3 but did prevent the decrease in surface amount of NHE3. These results suggest that PKCalpha is not necessary for the Ca2+-dependent formation of the NHE3 plasma membrane complex, although it is necessary for decreasing the membrane amounts of NHE3, probably by stimulating NHE3 endocytosis.