Digitization of Pathology Labs: A Review of Lessons Learned.

Pathology laboratories are increasingly using digital workflows. This has the potential of increasing laboratory efficiency, but the digitization process also involves major challenges. Several reports have been published describing the individual experiences of specific laboratories with the digitization process. However, a comprehensive overview of the lessons learned is still lacking. We provide an overview of the lessons learned for different aspects of the digitization process, including digital case management, digital slide reading, and computer-aided slide reading. We also cover metrics used for monitoring performance and pitfalls and corresponding values observed in practice. The overview is intended to help pathologists, information technology decision makers, and administrators to benefit from the experiences of others and to implement the digitization process in an optimal way to make their own laboratory future-proof.

Somatic Activating KRAS Mutations in Arteriovenous Malformations of the Brain.

BACKGROUND: Sporadic arteriovenous malformations of the brain, which are morphologically abnormal connections between arteries and veins in the brain vasculature, are a leading cause of hemorrhagic stroke in young adults and children. The genetic cause of this rare focal disorder is unknown. METHODS: We analyzed tissue and blood samples from patients with arteriovenous malformations of the brain to detect somatic mutations. We performed exome DNA sequencing of tissue samples of arteriovenous malformations of the brain from 26 patients in the main study group and of paired blood samples from 17 of those patients. To confirm our findings, we performed droplet digital polymerase-chain-reaction (PCR) analysis of tissue samples from 39 patients in the main study group (21 with matching blood samples) and from 33 patients in an independent validation group. We interrogated the downstream signaling pathways, changes in gene expression, and cellular phenotype that were induced by activating KRAS mutations, which we had discovered in tissue samples. RESULTS: We detected somatic activating KRAS mutations in tissue samples from 45 of the 72 patients and in none of the 21 paired blood samples. In endothelial cell-enriched cultures derived from arteriovenous malformations of the brain, we detected KRAS mutations and observed that expression of mutant KRAS (KRASG12V) in endothelial cells in vitro induced increased ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) activity, increased expression of genes related to angiogenesis and Notch signaling, and enhanced migratory behavior. These processes were reversed by inhibition of MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)-ERK signaling. CONCLUSIONS: We identified activating KRAS mutations in the majority of tissue samples of arteriovenous malformations of the brain that we analyzed. We propose that these malformations develop as a result of KRAS-induced activation of the MAPK-ERK signaling pathway in brain endothelial cells. (Funded by the Swiss Cancer League and others.).

Critical Illness-Associated Cerebral Microbleeds.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Cerebral microbleeds (petechial hemorrhages) are a well-known consequence of cerebral amyloid angiopathy and chronic hypertension among other causes. We report 12 patients with a clinically and radiologically distinct microbleed phenomenon in the cerebral white matter. METHODS: These patients were assessed at the University Health Network (Toronto, Canada) between 2004 and 2014. RESULTS: Median age was 40 years (range, 27-63 years), and 7 out of 12 patients were women. All patients had brain magnetic resonance imaging during or immediately after an intensive care unit admission. All patients had respiratory failure, 11 out of 12 received mechanical ventilation, and 3 out of 12 received extracorporeal life support. Magnetic resonance imaging in all 12 patients showed extensive microbleeds, diffusely involving the juxtacortical white matter and corpus callosum but sparing the cortex, deep and periventricular white matter, basal ganglia, and thalami. Several patients also had internal capsule or posterior fossa involvement. CONCLUSIONS: We have described a distinct microbleed phenomenon in the cerebral white matter of patients with critical illness. The specific cause of the microbleeds is unclear, but the pathogenesis may involve hypoxemia as the microbleeds are similar to those described with high-altitude exposure.

Treatment Outcomes in 1p19q Co-deleted/Partially Deleted Gliomas.

BACKGROUND: Radiotherapy with procarbazine, lomustine, and vincristine improves overall survival (OS) in patients with 1p19q co-deleted anaplastic oligodendroglioma/anaplastic oligoastrocytoma. METHODS: This retrospective analysis investigated outcomes in patients with 1p19q co-deleted/partially deleted oligodendroglioma, oligoastrocytoma, anaplastic oligodendroglioma, or anaplastic oligoastrocytoma. OS and progression-free survival (PFS) were analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method and prognostic factors using the Cox proportional hazard model. RESULTS: A total of 106 patients (between December 1997 and December 2013) were included. Median age was 40 years (19-66), 58 were male (55%), Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status was 0 in 80 patients (75%). 1p19q status was co-deleted in 66 (62%), incompletely co-deleted in 27 (25%), and 1p or 19q loss alone in four (4%) and nine (8%) patients, respectively. Isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 R132H mutation was found in 67 of 85 patients with sufficient material. Upfront treatment was given in 72 (68%) patients and temozolomide alone in 52 (49%). Median time to radiotherapy in 47 patients (44%) was 34.7 months and 41.2 months in 9 patients with co-deleted/incompletely co-deleted anaplastic oligodendroglioma/anaplastic oligoastrocytoma who received upfront temozolomide alone. Median OS was not reached and 5-year OS was 91% for all groups (median follow-up, 5.1 years). On multivariable analysis for all patients, receipt of therapy upfront versus none (p=0.04), PS 1 versus 0 (p<0.001) and 1p19q co-deletion/incomplete deletion versus 1p or 19q loss alone (p=0.005) were prognostic for PFS. Isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 status was not prognostic for PFS. CONCLUSIONS: With similar survival patterns in low-grade/anaplastic gliomas, molecular characteristics may be more important than histological grade. Longer follow-up and results of prospective trials are needed for definitive guidance on treatment of these patients.

Impact of glycemia on survival of glioblastoma patients treated with radiation and temozolomide.

Evidence suggests hyperglycemia is associated with worse outcomes in glioblastoma (GB). This study aims to confirm the association between glycemia during radiotherapy (RT) and temozolomide (TMZ) treatment and overall survival (OS) in patients with newly diagnosed GB. This retrospective study included GB patients treated with RT and TMZ from 2004 to 2011, randomly divided into independent derivation and validation datasets. Time-weighted mean (TWM) glucose and dexamethasone dose were collected from start of RT to 4 weeks after RT. Univariate (UVA) and multivariable (MVA) analyses investigated the association of TWM glucose and other prognostic factors with overall survival (OS). In total, 393 patients with median follow-up of 14 months were analyzed. In the derivation set (n = 196) the median OS was 15 months and median TWM glucose was 6.3 mmol/L. For patients with a TWM glucose ≤6.3 and >6.3 mmol/L, median OS was 16 and 13 months, respectively (p = 0.03). On UVA, TWM glucose, TWM dexamethasone, age, extent of surgery, and performance status were associated with OS. On MVA, TWM glucose remained an independent predictor of OS (p = 0.03) along with TWM dexamethasone, age, and surgery. The validation set (n = 197), with similar baseline characteristics, confirmed that TWM glucose ≤6.3 mmol/L was independently associated with longer OS (p = 0.005). This study demonstrates and validates that glycemia is an independent predictor for survival in GB patients treated with RT and TMZ.

Evolving educational landscape in pathology: a comprehensive bibliometric and visual analysis including digital teaching and learning resources.

AIMS: Pathology education is a core component of medical training, and its literature is critical for refining educational modalities. We performed a cross-sectional bibliometric analysis to explore publications on pathology education, focusing on new medical education technologies. METHODS: The analysis identified 64 pathology journals and 53 keywords. Relevant articles were collected using a web application, PaperScraper, developed to accelerate literature search. Citation data were collected from multiple sources. Descriptive statistics, with time period analysis, were performed using Microsoft Excel and visualised with Flourish Studio. Two article groups were further investigated with a bibliometric software, VOSViewer, to establish co-authorship and keyword relationships. RESULTS: 8946 citations were retrieved from 905 selected articles. Most articles were published in the last decade (447, 49.4%). The top journals were Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine (184), Human Pathology (122) and the American Journal of Clinical Pathology (117). The highest number of citations was found for Human Pathology (2120), followed by Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine (2098) and American Journal of Clinical Pathology (1142). Authors with different backgrounds had the greatest number of articles and citations. 12 co-authorship, 3 keyword and 8 co-citation clusters were found for the social media/online resources group, 8 co-authorship, 4 keyword and 7 co-citation clusters for the digital pathology/virtual microscopy/mobile technologies group. CONCLUSIONS: The analysis revealed a significant increase in publications over time. The emergence of digital teaching and learning resources played a major role in this growth. Overall, these findings underscore the transformative potential of technology in pathology education.

Hippocampal malrotation is associated with chromosome 22q11.2 microdeletion.

BACKGROUND: Patients with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) are at a seven fold increased risk of developing seizures. However, only a fraction of these patients exhibit structural abnormalities such as polymicrogyria (PMG) and periventricular nodular heterotopia (PNH) that are known to cause seizures and to be associated with 22q11DS. In this study we used a dedicated seizure imaging protocol to look for additional structural abnormalities in these individuals that may explain the elevated risk of seizure disorder in this patient group. METHODS: Nineteen consecutive adult subjects with 22q11DS underwent a 3 Tesla MRI with a dedicated high-resolution seizure protocol. Neurological exam was performed in all patients. Genome-wide analysis excluded the presence of other pathogenic microdeletions or duplications. RESULTS: Structural abnormalities were found in 11 of 14 subjects with sufficient image quality. These included three patients with PNH, one of whom had associated PMG. In addition, there was a surprisingly high prevalence of unilateral hippocampal malrotation (HIMAL), observed in 9 of 14 cases (64%). EEG findings showed interictal epileptiform discharges with focal distribution in four patients and generalized discharges in one patient. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that, in addition to other known structural abnormalities, 22q11DS is associated with HIMAL. It has been suggested that this developmental abnormality of the hippocampus may predispose or otherwise contribute to epileptogenesis. However in this study we observed HIMAL in a large proportion of patients, with and without epilepsy. Therefore, other as yet unknown factors may contribute to the high prevalence of epilepsy in this population.

Explainability and causability in digital pathology.

The current move towards digital pathology enables pathologists to use artificial intelligence (AI)-based computer programmes for the advanced analysis of whole slide images. However, currently, the best-performing AI algorithms for image analysis are deemed black boxes since it remains - even to their developers - often unclear why the algorithm delivered a particular result. Especially in medicine, a better understanding of algorithmic decisions is essential to avoid mistakes and adverse effects on patients. This review article aims to provide medical experts with insights on the issue of explainability in digital pathology. A short introduction to the relevant underlying core concepts of machine learning shall nurture the reader's understanding of why explainability is a specific issue in this field. Addressing this issue of explainability, the rapidly evolving research field of explainable AI (XAI) has developed many techniques and methods to make black-box machine-learning systems more transparent. These XAI methods are a first step towards making black-box AI systems understandable by humans. However, we argue that an explanation interface must complement these explainable models to make their results useful to human stakeholders and achieve a high level of causability, i.e. a high level of causal understanding by the user. This is especially relevant in the medical field since explainability and causability play a crucial role also for compliance with regulatory requirements. We conclude by promoting the need for novel user interfaces for AI applications in pathology, which enable contextual understanding and allow the medical expert to ask interactive 'what-if'-questions. In pathology, such user interfaces will not only be important to achieve a high level of causability. They will also be crucial for keeping the human-in-the-loop and bringing medical experts' experience and conceptual knowledge to AI processes.

NPAS3 demonstrates features of a tumor suppressive role in driving the progression of Astrocytomas.

Malignant astrocytomas, the most common primary brain tumors, are predominantly fatal. Improved treatments will require a better understanding of the biological features of high-grade astrocytomas. To better understand the role of neuronal PAS 3 (NPAS3) in diseases in human beings, it was investigated as a candidate for astrocytomagenesis based on the presence of aberrant protein expression in greater than 70% of a human astrocytoma panel (n = 433) and most notably in surgically resected malignant lesions. In subsequent functional studies, it was concluded that NPAS3 exhibits features of a tumor-suppressor, which drives the progression of astrocytomas by modulating the cell cycle, proliferation, apoptosis, and cell migration/invasion and has a further influence on the viability of endothelial cells. Of clinical importance, absence of NPAS3 expression in glioblastomas was a significantly negative prognostic marker of survival. In addition, malignant astrocytomas lacking NPAS3 expression demonstrated loss of function mutations, which were associated with loss of heterozygosity. While overexpressed NPAS3 in malignant glioma cell lines significantly suppressed transformation, the converse decreased expression considerably induced more aggressive growth. In addition, knockdown NPAS3 expression in a human astrocyte cell line in concert with the human papillomavirus E6 and E7 oncogenes induced growth of malignant astrocytomas. In conclusion, NPAS3 drives the progression of human malignant astrocytomas as a tumor suppressor and is a negative prognostication marker for survival.

Human neuropathological and animal model evidence supporting a role for Fas-mediated apoptosis and inflammation in cervical spondylotic myelopathy.

Although cervical spondylotic myelopathy is a common cause of chronic spinal cord dysfunction in humans, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying the progressive neural degeneration characterized by this condition. Based on animal models of cervical spondylotic myelopathy and traumatic spinal cord injury, we hypothesized that Fas-mediated apoptosis and inflammation may play an important role in the pathobiology of human cervical spondylotic myelopathy. We further hypothesized that neutralization of the Fas ligand using a function-blocking antibody would reduce cell death, attenuate inflammation, promote axonal repair and enhance functional neurological outcomes in animal models of cervical spondylotic myelopathy. We examined molecular changes in post-mortem human spinal cord tissue from eight patients with cervical spondylotic myelopathy and four control cases. Complementary studies were conducted using a mouse model of cervical spondylotic myelopathy (twy/twy mice that develop spontaneous cord compression at C2-C3). We observed Fas-mediated apoptosis of neurons and oligodendrocytes and an increase in inflammatory cells in the compressed spinal cords of patients with cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Furthermore, neutralization of Fas ligand with a function-blocking antibody in twy/twy mice reduced neural inflammation at the lesion mediated by macrophages and activated microglia, glial scar formation and caspase-9 activation. It was also associated with increased expression of Bcl-2 and promoted dramatic functional neurological recovery. Our data demonstrate, for the first time in humans, the potential contribution of Fas-mediated cell death and inflammation to the pathobiology of cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Complementary data in a murine model of cervical spondylotic myelopathy further suggest that targeting the Fas death receptor pathway is a viable neuroprotective strategy to attenuate neural degeneration and optimize neurological recovery in cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Our findings highlight the possibility of medical treatments for cervical spondylotic myelopathy that are complementary to surgical decompression.

Extraventricular anaplastic ependymoma with metastasis to scalp and neck.

We report a case of anaplastic ependymoma with extracranial metastases in a 22-year-old female. The patient originally presented with headaches and dysarthria. Neuroimaging revealed a large solid and cystic right fronto-temporal lesion. It was located completely extraventricularly and a glioblastoma was suspected based on the neuroimaging findings. A gross total resection was achieved. Histopathologic examination revealed an anaplastic ependymoma. The patient was treated with radiotherapy. Approximately 1 year after the initial surgery, the patient presented with metastatic disease to the scalp. At 2 years, an intraparotid metastasis was detected. Subsequent neck dissection revealed positive lymph nodes at several levels. It was followed by radiotherapy to the neck. 5 years after the initial surgery, the patient has residual metastatic disease. The case is discussed and the literature on extraventricular ependymal neoplasms is reviewed.

Lipoma compressing the brachial plexus in a patient with sarcoidosis: case report.

Lipomas associated with distal peripheral nerves are well recognized; however, those impinging on the brachial plexus are rare. We document a unique case of a sarcoidosis patient with an extraneural lipoma compressing the brachial plexus, and present a review of the current literature.

Best Practice Recommendations for the Implementation of a Digital Pathology Workflow in the Anatomic Pathology Laboratory by the European Society of Digital and Integrative Pathology (ESDIP).

The interest in implementing digital pathology (DP) workflows to obtain whole slide image (WSI) files for diagnostic purposes has increased in the last few years. The increasing performance of technical components and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of systems for primary diagnosis led to increased interest in applying DP workflows. However, despite this revolutionary transition, real world data suggest that a fully digital approach to the histological workflow has been implemented in only a minority of pathology laboratories. The objective of this study is to facilitate the implementation of DP workflows in pathology laboratories, helping those involved in this process of transformation to identify: (a) the scope and the boundaries of the DP transformation; (b) how to introduce automation to reduce errors; (c) how to introduce appropriate quality control to guarantee the safety of the process and (d) the hardware and software needed to implement DP systems inside the pathology laboratory. The European Society of Digital and Integrative Pathology (ESDIP) provided consensus-based recommendations developed through discussion among members of the Scientific Committee. The recommendations are thus based on the expertise of the panel members and on the agreement obtained after virtual meetings. Prior to publication, the recommendations were reviewed by members of the ESDIP Board. The recommendations comprehensively cover every step of the implementation of the digital workflow in the anatomic pathology department, emphasizing the importance of interoperability, automation and tracking of the entire process before the introduction of a scanning facility. Compared to the available national and international guidelines, the present document represents a practical, handy reference for the correct implementation of the digital workflow in Europe.

Frequently asked questions concerning the use of whole-slide imaging telepathology for neuropathology frozen sections.

TP involves the provision of pathology services over a distance using the Internet to link pathologists at the "viewing site" with diagnostic material in a "remote site." Robotic microscopes were a mainstay of TP; however, this is now changing with the development of whole-slide imaging (WSI) systems which enable rapid production of digital slides that can be reviewed over a complete range of magnifications with a viewing experience closely replicating that of light microscopy. As such, WSI will undoubtedly become a viable option for pathology departments considering TP for remote frozen section (FS) coverage, and in the future for rapid consultation on difficult cases. For reasons to be discussed below, it may be particularly attractive to use WSI TP for neuropathology frozen sections (NPFS). We have been using WSI TP for primary NPFS diagnoses since 2006. This brief review provides answers to questions that we have frequently been asked about our program. The answers reflect our experience, and it is important to note that our recommendations may not be applicable in all institutions. The reader is directed to the recent literature for more detailed information on WSI as well as a complete description of our TP program.

Primary frozen section diagnosis by robotic microscopy and virtual slide telepathology: the University Health Network experience.

Although telepathology (TP) has not been widely implemented for primary frozen section diagnoses, interest in its use is growing as we move into an age of increasing sub-specialization and centralization of pathology services. University Health Network (UHN) is a 3-site academic institution in downtown Toronto. The pathology department is consolidated at its Toronto General Hospital (TGH) site. The Toronto Western Hospital (TWH), located 1 mile to west of TGH, has no on-site pathologist and generates 5-10 frozen section cases per week. Over 95% of these frozen sections are submitted by neurosurgeons, in most cases to confirm the presence of lesional tissue and establish a tissue diagnosis. In 2004, we implemented a robotic microscopy (RM) TP system to cover these frozen sections. In 2006, we changed to a virtual slide (VS) TP system. Between November 2004 and September 2006, 350 primary frozen section diagnoses were made by RM. An additional 633 have been reported by VS TP since October 2006, giving a total of 983 frozen sections from 790 patients. Eighty-eight percent of these cases have been single specimens with total turnaround times averaging 19.98 and 15.68 minutes per case by RM and VS TP, respectively (P < 0.0001). Pathologists required an average of 9.65 minutes to review a slide by RM. This decreased 4 fold to 2.25 minutes following the change to VS TP (P < 0.00001). Diagnostic accuracy has been 98% with both modalities and our overall deferral rate has been 7.7%. Mid-case technical failure has occurred in 3 cases (0.3%) resulting in a delay where a pathologist went to TWH to report the frozen section. Discrepant cases have typically involved minor interpretive errors related to tumor type. None of our discrepant TP diagnoses have had clinical impact to date. We have found TP to be reliable and accurate for frozen section diagnoses. In addition to its superior speed and image quality, the VS approach readily facilitates consultation with colleagues on difficult cases. As a result, there has been greater overall pathologist satisfaction with VS TP.

Vestibular Schwannomas presenting with haemorrhage: clinical presentation and histopathological evaluation of an unusual entity.

Gross intratumoral haemorrhage is rare in vestibular schwannomas. The authors describe the clinical features of this entity in 6 patients, the histopathologic findings in 5 of them, and discuss possible factors predisposing to haemorrhage in these tumors. Detailed radiological and histopathological evaluation identified two factors which may be associated with higher likelihood of haemorrhage, namely preoperative radiation therapy and vascular abnormalities. Tumor size may not be a major risk factor for haemorrhage. Good outcomes can be achieved with microsurgical management. The histological features presented here differ clearly from findings in previously published case reports.

Creation of a retrospective searchable neuropathologic database from print archives at Toronto's University Health Network.

University Health Network (UHN) Pathology, in its capacity of providing neuro-oncologic care, now utilizes a laboratory information system (LIS), which was instituted in September 2001. For the 75 years preceding the LIS, more than 50 000 pathology reports exist in paper format. High-throughput automated scanning of the paper archives was employed to add the most recent 30 years of paper records (30 000 neuropathology specimens) to the LIS. The searchable portable document format (PDF) files generated from the scans were filtered through a multi-tiered process driven by Java computer programs that selected relevant patient and diagnostic information. A second series of programs queried the neuropathologist-assigned diagnoses and successfully converted these to the standardized World Health Organization (WHO) format. This was achieved with a master list of key site and diagnostic terms, and prioritization rules that were determined on a trial and error basis. Categorization, verification, and consolidation were completed within 3 months and on a C$10 000 budget.