Patterning and folding of intestinal villi by active mesenchymal dewetting.

Tissue folds are structural motifs critical to organ function. In the intestine, bending of a flat epithelium into a periodic pattern of folds gives rise to villi, finger-like protrusions that enable nutrient absorption. However, the molecular and mechanical processes driving villus morphogenesis remain unclear. Here, we identify an active mechanical mechanism that simultaneously patterns and folds the intestinal epithelium to initiate villus formation. At the cellular level, we find that PDGFRA+ subepithelial mesenchymal cells generate myosin II-dependent forces sufficient to produce patterned curvature in neighboring tissue interfaces. This symmetry-breaking process requires altered cell and extracellular matrix interactions that are enabled by matrix metalloproteinase-mediated tissue fluidization. Computational models, together with in vitro and in vivo experiments, revealed that these cellular features manifest at the tissue level as differences in interfacial tensions that promote mesenchymal aggregation and interface bending through a process analogous to the active dewetting of a thin liquid film.

Programming multicellular assembly with synthetic cell adhesion molecules.

Cell adhesion molecules are ubiquitous in multicellular organisms, specifying precise cell-cell interactions in processes as diverse as tissue development, immune cell trafficking and the wiring of the nervous system1-4. Here we show that a wide array of synthetic cell adhesion molecules can be generated by combining orthogonal extracellular interactions with intracellular domains from native adhesion molecules, such as cadherins and integrins. The resulting molecules yield customized cell-cell interactions with adhesion properties that are similar to native interactions. The identity of the intracellular domain of the synthetic cell adhesion molecules specifies interface morphology and mechanics, whereas diverse homotypic or heterotypic extracellular interaction domains independently specify the connectivity between cells. This toolkit of orthogonal adhesion molecules enables the rationally programmed assembly of multicellular architectures, as well as systematic remodelling of native tissues. The modularity of synthetic cell adhesion molecules provides fundamental insights into how distinct classes of cell-cell interfaces may have evolved. Overall, these tools offer powerful abilities for cell and tissue engineering and for systematically studying multicellular organization.

An interactive atlas of three-dimensional syndromic facial morphology.

Craniofacial phenotyping is critical for both syndrome delineation and diagnosis because craniofacial abnormalities occur in 30% of characterized genetic syndromes. Clinical reports, textbooks, and available software tools typically provide two-dimensional, static images and illustrations of the characteristic phenotypes of genetic syndromes. In this work, we provide an interactive web application that provides three-dimensional, dynamic visualizations for the characteristic craniofacial effects of 95 syndromes. Users can visualize syndrome facial appearance estimates quantified from data and easily compare craniofacial phenotypes of different syndromes. Our application also provides a map of morphological similarity between a target syndrome and other syndromes. Finally, users can upload 3D facial scans of individuals and compare them to our syndrome atlas estimates. In summary, we provide an interactive reference for the craniofacial phenotypes of syndromes that allows for precise, individual-specific comparisons of dysmorphology.

Myosin II mediates Shh signals to shape dental epithelia via control of cell adhesion and movement.

The development of ectodermal organs begins with the formation of a stratified epithelial placode that progressively invaginates into the underlying mesenchyme as the organ takes its shape. Signaling by secreted molecules is critical for epithelial morphogenesis, but how that information leads to cell rearrangement and tissue shape changes remains an open question. Using the mouse dentition as a model, we first establish that non-muscle myosin II is essential for dental epithelial invagination and show that it functions by promoting cell-cell adhesion and persistent convergent cell movements in the suprabasal layer. Shh signaling controls these processes by inducing myosin II activation via AKT. Pharmacological induction of AKT and myosin II can also rescue defects caused by the inhibition of Shh. Together, our results support a model in which the Shh signal is transmitted through myosin II to power effective cellular rearrangement for proper dental epithelial invagination.

The developmental basis for scaling of mammalian tooth size.

When evolution leads to differences in body size, organs generally scale along. A well-known example of the tight relationship between organ and body size is the scaling of mammalian molar teeth. To investigate how teeth scale during development and evolution, we compared molar development from initiation through final size in the mouse and the rat. Whereas the linear dimensions of the rat molars are twice that of the mouse molars, their shapes are largely the same. Here, we focus on the first lower molars that are considered the most reliable dental proxy for size-related patterns due to their low within-species variability. We found that scaling of the molars starts early, and that the rat molar is patterned equally as fast but in a larger size than the mouse molar. Using transcriptomics, we discovered that a known regulator of body size, insulin-like growth factor 1 (Igf1), is more highly expressed in the rat molars compared to the mouse molars. Ex vivo and in vivo mouse models demonstrated that modulation of the IGF pathway reproduces several aspects of the observed scaling process. Furthermore, analysis of IGF1-treated mouse molars and computational modeling indicate that IGF signaling scales teeth by simultaneously enhancing growth and by inhibiting the cusp-patterning program, thereby providing a relatively simple mechanism for scaling teeth during development and evolution. Finally, comparative data from shrews to elephants suggest that this scaling mechanism regulates the minimum tooth size possible, as well as the patterning potential of large teeth.

Early perturbation of Wnt signaling reveals patterning and invagination-evagination control points in molar tooth development.

Tooth formation requires complex signaling interactions both within the oral epithelium and between the epithelium and the underlying mesenchyme. Previous studies of the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway have shown that tooth formation is partly inhibited in loss-of-function mutants, and gain-of-function mutants have perturbed tooth morphology. However, the stage at which Wnt signaling is first important in tooth formation remains unclear. Here, using an Fgf8-promoter-driven, and therefore early, deletion of ß-catenin in mouse molar epithelium, we found that loss of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling completely deletes the molar tooth, demonstrating that this pathway is central to the earliest stages of tooth formation. Early expression of a dominant-active ß-catenin protein also perturbs tooth formation, producing a large domed evagination at early stages and supernumerary teeth later on. The early evaginations are associated with premature mesenchymal condensation marker, and are reduced by inhibition of condensation-associated collagen synthesis. We propose that invagination versus evagination morphogenesis is regulated by the relative timing of epithelial versus mesenchymal cell convergence regulated by canonical Wnt signaling. Together, these studies reveal new aspects of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in tooth formation and in epithelial morphogenesis more broadly.

Parasitic helminths induce fetal-like reversion in the intestinal stem cell niche.

Epithelial surfaces form critical barriers to the outside world and are continuously renewed by adult stem cells1. Whereas dynamics of epithelial stem cells during homeostasis are increasingly well understood, how stem cells are redirected from a tissue-maintenance program to initiate repair after injury remains unclear. Here we examined infection by Heligmosomoides polygyrus, a co-evolved pathosymbiont of mice, to assess the epithelial response to disruption of the mucosal barrier. H. polygyrus disrupts tissue integrity by penetrating the duodenal mucosa, where it develops while surrounded by a multicellular granulomatous infiltrate2. Crypts overlying larvae-associated granulomas did not express intestinal stem cell markers, including Lgr53, in spite of continued epithelial proliferation. Granuloma-associated Lgr5- crypt epithelium activated an interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-dependent transcriptional program, highlighted by Sca-1 expression, and IFN-γ-producing immune cells were found in granulomas. A similar epithelial response accompanied systemic activation of immune cells, intestinal irradiation, or ablation of Lgr5+ intestinal stem cells. When cultured in vitro, granuloma-associated crypt cells formed spheroids similar to those formed by fetal epithelium, and a sub-population of H. polygyrus-induced cells activated a fetal-like transcriptional program, demonstrating that adult intestinal tissues can repurpose aspects of fetal development. Therefore, re-initiation of the developmental program represents a fundamental mechanism by which the intestinal crypt can remodel itself to sustain function after injury.

Publisher Correction: Parasitic helminths induce fetal-like reversion in the intestinal stem cell niche.

In this Letter, the received date should have been 23 March 2017 instead of 13 April 2018. Authors R.M.K. and O.D.K. were incorrectly denoted as 'equally contributing' authors. The labels for 'control' and 'IFNγ' in Extended Data Fig. 4g were reversed. These have been corrected online.

Mechanoresponsive stem cells acquire neural crest fate in jaw regeneration.

During both embryonic development and adult tissue regeneration, changes in chromatin structure driven by master transcription factors lead to stimulus-responsive transcriptional programs. A thorough understanding of how stem cells in the skeleton interpret mechanical stimuli and enact regeneration would shed light on how forces are transduced to the nucleus in regenerative processes. Here we develop a genetically dissectible mouse model of mandibular distraction osteogenesis-which is a process that is used in humans to correct an undersized lower jaw that involves surgically separating the jaw bone, which elicits new bone growth in the gap. We use this model to show that regions of newly formed bone are clonally derived from stem cells that reside in the skeleton. Using chromatin and transcriptional profiling, we show that these stem-cell populations gain activity within the focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signalling pathway, and that inhibiting FAK abolishes new bone formation. Mechanotransduction via FAK in skeletal stem cells during distraction activates a gene-regulatory program and retrotransposons that are normally active in primitive neural crest cells, from which skeletal stem cells arise during development. This reversion to a developmental state underlies the robust tissue growth that facilitates stem-cell-based regeneration of adult skeletal tissue.

Privacy, bias and the clinical use of facial recognition technology: A survey of genetics professionals.

Facial recognition technology (FRT) has been adopted as a precision medicine tool. The medical genetics field highlights both the clinical potential and privacy risks of this technology, putting the discipline at the forefront of a new digital privacy debate. Investigating how geneticists perceive the privacy concerns surrounding FRT can help shape the evolution and regulation of the field, and provide lessons for medicine and research more broadly. Five hundred and sixty-two genetics clinicians and researchers were approached to fill out a survey, 105 responded, and 80% of these completed. The survey consisted of 48 questions covering demographics, relationship to new technologies, views on privacy, views on FRT, and views on regulation. Genetics professionals generally placed a high value on privacy, although specific views differed, were context-specific, and covaried with demographic factors. Most respondents (88%) agreed that privacy is a basic human right, but only 37% placed greater weight on it than other values such as freedom of speech. Most respondents (80%) supported FRT use in genetics, but not necessarily for broader clinical use. A sizeable percentage (39%) were unaware of FRT's lower accuracy rates in marginalized communities and of the mental health effects of privacy violations (62%), but most (76% and 75%, respectively) expressed concern when informed. Overall, women and those who self-identified as politically progressive were more concerned about the lower accuracy rates in marginalized groups (88% vs. 64% and 83% vs. 63%, respectively). Younger geneticists were more wary than older geneticists about using FRT in genetics (28% compared to 56% "strongly" supported such use). There was an overall preference for more regulation, but respondents had low confidence in governments' or technology companies' ability to accomplish this. Privacy views are nuanced and context-dependent. Support for privacy was high but not absolute, and clear deficits existed in awareness of crucial FRT-related discrimination potential and mental health impacts. Education and professional guidelines may help to evolve views and practices within the field.

Atoh1+ secretory progenitors possess renewal capacity independent of Lgr5+ cells during colonic regeneration.

During homeostasis, the colonic epithelium is replenished every 3-5 days by rapidly cycling Lgr5+ stem cells. However, various insults can lead to depletion of Lgr5+ stem cells, and colonic epithelium can be regenerated from Lgr5-negative cells. While studies in the small intestine have addressed the lineage identity of the Lgr5-negative regenerative cell population, in the colon this question has remained unanswered. Here, we set out to identify which cell(s) contribute to colonic regeneration by performing genetic fate-mapping studies of progenitor populations in mice. First, using keratin-19 (Krt19) to mark a heterogeneous population of cells, we found that Lgr5-negative cells can regenerate colonic crypts and give rise to Lgr5+ stem cells. Notch1+ absorptive progenitor cells did not contribute to epithelial repair after injury, whereas Atoh1+ secretory progenitors did contribute to this process. Additionally, while colonic Atoh1+ cells contributed minimally to other lineages during homeostasis, they displayed plasticity and contributed to epithelial repair during injury, independent of Lgr5+ cells. Our findings suggest that promotion of secretory progenitor plasticity could enable gut healing in colitis.

Prominin-1 controls stem cell activation by orchestrating ciliary dynamics.

Proper temporal and spatial activation of stem cells relies on highly coordinated cell signaling. The primary cilium is the sensory organelle that is responsible for transmitting extracellular signals into a cell. Primary cilium size, architecture, and assembly-disassembly dynamics are under rigid cell cycle-dependent control. Using mouse incisor tooth epithelia as a model, we show that ciliary dynamics in stem cells require the proper functions of a cholesterol-binding membrane glycoprotein, Prominin-1 (Prom1/CD133), which controls sequential recruitment of ciliary membrane components, histone deacetylase, and transcription factors. Nuclear translocation of Prom1 and these molecules is particularly evident in transit amplifying cells, the immediate derivatives of stem cells. The absence of Prom1 impairs ciliary dynamics and abolishes the growth stimulation effects of sonic hedgehog (SHH) treatment, resulting in the disruption of stem cell quiescence maintenance and activation. We propose that Prom1 is a key regulator ensuring appropriate response of stem cells to extracellular signals, with important implications for development, regeneration, and diseases.

Molecular and cellular mechanisms of tooth development, homeostasis and repair.

The tooth provides an excellent system for deciphering the molecular mechanisms of organogenesis, and has thus been of longstanding interest to developmental and stem cell biologists studying embryonic morphogenesis and adult tissue renewal. In recent years, analyses of molecular signaling networks, together with new insights into cellular heterogeneity, have greatly improved our knowledge of the dynamic epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that take place during tooth development and homeostasis. Here, we review recent progress in the field of mammalian tooth morphogenesis and also discuss the mechanisms regulating stem cell-based dental tissue homeostasis, regeneration and repair. These exciting findings help to lay a foundation that will ultimately enable the application of fundamental research discoveries toward therapies to improve oral health.

FaceBase 3: analytical tools and FAIR resources for craniofacial and dental research.

The FaceBase Consortium was established by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research in 2009 as a 'big data' resource for the craniofacial research community. Over the past decade, researchers have deposited hundreds of annotated and curated datasets on both normal and disordered craniofacial development in FaceBase, all freely available to the research community on the FaceBase Hub website. The Hub has developed numerous visualization and analysis tools designed to promote integration of multidisciplinary data while remaining dedicated to the FAIR principles of data management (findability, accessibility, interoperability and reusability) and providing a faceted search infrastructure for locating desired data efficiently. Summaries of the datasets generated by the FaceBase projects from 2014 to 2019 are provided here. FaceBase 3 now welcomes contributions of data on craniofacial and dental development in humans, model organisms and cell lines. Collectively, the FaceBase Consortium, along with other NIH-supported data resources, provide a continuously growing, dynamic and current resource for the scientific community while improving data reproducibility and fulfilling data sharing requirements.

SPRY4-dependent ERK negative feedback demarcates functional adult stem cells in the male mouse germline†.

Niche-derived growth factors support self-renewal of mouse spermatogonial stem and progenitor cells through ERK MAPK signaling and other pathways. At the same time, dysregulated growth factor-dependent signaling has been associated with loss of stem cell activity and aberrant differentiation. We hypothesized that growth factor signaling through the ERK MAPK pathway in spermatogonial stem cells is tightly regulated within a narrow range through distinct intracellular negative feedback regulators. Evaluation of candidate extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-responsive genes known to dampen downstream signaling revealed robust induction of specific negative feedback regulators, including Spry4, in cultured mouse spermatogonial stem cells in response to glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor or fibroblast growth factor 2. Undifferentiated spermatogonia in vivo exhibited high levels of Spry4 mRNA. Quantitative single-cell analysis of ERK MAPK signaling in spermatogonial stem cell cultures revealed both dynamic signaling patterns in response to growth factors and disruption of such effects when Spry4 was ablated, due to dysregulation of ERK MAPK downstream of RAS. Whereas negative feedback regulator expression decreased during differentiation, loss of Spry4 shifted cell fate toward early differentiation with concomitant loss of stem cell activity. Finally, a mouse Spry4 reporter line revealed that the adult spermatogonial stem cell population in vivo is demarcated by strong Spry4 promoter activity. Collectively, our data suggest that negative feedback-dependent regulation of ERK MAPK is critical for preservation of spermatogonial stem cell fate within the mammalian testis.

A dominant negative mutation uncovers cooperative control of caudal Wolffian duct development by Sprouty genes.

The Wolffian ducts (WD) are paired epithelial tubules central to the development of the mammalian genitourinary tract. Outgrowths from the WD known as the ureteric buds (UB) generate the collecting ducts of the kidney. Later during development, the caudal portion of the WD will form the vas deferens, epididymis and seminal vesicle in males, and will degenerate in females. While the genetic pathways controlling the development of the UB are firmly established, less is known about those governing development of WD portions caudal to the UB. Sprouty proteins are inhibitors of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling in vivo. We have recently shown that homozygous mutation of a conserved tyrosine (Tyr53) of Spry1 results in UB defects indistinguishable from that of Spry1 null mice. Here, we show that heterozygosity for the Spry1 Y53A allele causes caudal WD developmental defects consisting of ectopically branched seminal vesicles in males and persistent WD in females, without affecting kidney development. Detailed analysis reveals that this phenotype also occurs in Spry1+/- mice but with a much lower penetrance, indicating that removal of tyrosine 53 generates a dominant negative mutation in vivo. Supporting this notion, concomitant deletion of one allele of Spry1 and Spry2 also recapitulates the genital phenotype of Spry1Y53A/+ mice with high penetrance. Mechanistically, we show that unlike the effects of Spry1 in kidney development, these caudal WD defects are independent of Ret signaling, but can be completely rescued by lowering the genetic dosage of Fgf10. In conclusion, mutation of tyrosine 53 of Spry1 generates a dominant negative allele that uncovers fine-tuning of caudal WD development by Sprouty genes.

Refining nosology by modelling variation among facial phenotypes: the RASopathies.

BACKGROUND: In clinical genetics, establishing an accurate nosology requires analysis of variations in both aetiology and the resulting phenotypes. At the phenotypic level, recognising typical facial gestalts has long supported clinical and molecular diagnosis; however, the objective analysis of facial phenotypic variation remains underdeveloped. In this work, we propose exploratory strategies for assessing facial phenotypic variation within and among clinical and molecular disease entities and deploy these techniques on cross-sectional samples of four RASopathies: Costello syndrome (CS), Noonan syndrome (NS), cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome (CFC) and neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). METHODS: From three-dimensional dense surface scans, we model the typical phenotypes of the four RASopathies as average 'facial signatures' and assess individual variation in terms of direction (what parts of the face are affected and in what ways) and severity of the facial effects. We also derive a metric of phenotypic agreement between the syndromes and a metric of differences in severity along similar phenotypes. RESULTS: CFC shows a relatively consistent facial phenotype in terms of both direction and severity that is similar to CS and NS, consistent with the known difficulty in discriminating CFC from NS based on the face. CS shows a consistent directional phenotype that varies in severity. Although NF1 is highly variable, on average, it shows a similar phenotype to CS. CONCLUSIONS: We established an approach that can be used in the future to quantify variations in facial phenotypes between and within clinical and molecular diagnoses to objectively define and support clinical nosologies.

SOX2 regulation by hedgehog signaling controls adult lingual epithelium homeostasis.

Adult tongue epithelium is continuously renewed from epithelial progenitor cells, a process that requires hedgehog (HH) signaling. In mice, pharmacological inhibition of the HH pathway causes taste bud loss within a few weeks. Previously, we demonstrated that sonic hedgehog (SHH) overexpression in lingual progenitors induces ectopic taste buds with locally increased SOX2 expression, suggesting that taste bud differentiation depends on SOX2 downstream of HH. To test this, we inhibited HH signaling in mice and observed a rapid decline in Sox2 and SOX2-GFP expression in taste epithelium. Upon conditional deletion of Sox2, differentiation of both taste and non-taste epithelial cells was blocked, and progenitor cell number increased. In contrast to basally restricted proliferation in controls, dividing cells were overabundant and spread to suprabasal epithelial layers in mutants. SOX2 loss in progenitors also led non-cell-autonomously to taste cell apoptosis, dramatically shortening taste cell lifespans. Finally, in tongues with conditional Sox2 deletion and SHH overexpression, ectopic and endogenous taste buds were not detectable; instead, progenitor hyperproliferation expanded throughout the lingual epithelium. In summary, we show that SOX2 functions downstream of HH signaling to regulate lingual epithelium homeostasis.

Plasticity within the niche ensures the maintenance of a Sox2+ stem cell population in the mouse incisor.

In mice, the incisors grow throughout the animal's life, and this continuous renewal is driven by dental epithelial and mesenchymal stem cells. Sox2 is a principal marker of the epithelial stem cells that reside in the mouse incisor stem cell niche, called the labial cervical loop, but relatively little is known about the role of the Sox2+ stem cell population. In this study, we show that conditional deletion of Sox2 in the embryonic incisor epithelium leads to growth defects and impairment of ameloblast lineage commitment. Deletion of Sox2 specifically in Sox2+ cells during incisor renewal revealed cellular plasticity that leads to the relatively rapid restoration of a Sox2-expressing cell population. Furthermore, we show that Lgr5-expressing cells are a subpopulation of dental Sox2+ cells that also arise from Sox2+ cells during tooth formation. Finally, we show that the embryonic and adult Sox2+ populations are regulated by distinct signalling pathways, which is reflected in their distinct transcriptomic signatures. Together, our findings demonstrate that a Sox2+ stem cell population can be regenerated from Sox2- cells, reinforcing its importance for incisor homeostasis.

Diverse progenitor cells preserve salivary gland ductal architecture after radiation-induced damage.

The ductal system of the salivary gland has long been postulated to be resistant to radiation-induced damage, a common side effect incurred by head and neck cancer patients receiving radiotherapy. Yet, whether the ducts are capable of regenerating after genotoxic injury, or whether damage to ductal cells induces lineage plasticity, as has been reported in other organ systems, remains unknown. Here, using the murine salivary gland, we show that two ductal progenitor populations, marked exclusively by KRT14 and KIT, maintain non-overlapping ductal compartments after radiation exposure but do so through distinct cellular mechanisms. KRT14+ progenitor cells are fast-cycling cells that proliferate in response to radiation-induced damage in a sustained manner and divide asymmetrically to produce differentiated cells of the larger granulated ducts. Conversely, KIT+ intercalated duct cells are long-lived progenitors for the intercalated ducts that undergo few cell divisions either during homeostasis or after gamma radiation, thus maintaining ductal architecture with slow rates of cell turnover. Together, these data illustrate the regenerative capacity of the salivary ducts and highlight the heterogeneity in the damage responses used by salivary progenitor cells to maintain tissue architecture.