Confronting the hypervariability of an immunodominant epitope eliciting virus neutralizing antibodies from the envelope glycoprotein of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)--II. Synthetic peptides linked to HIV-1 carrier proteins gag and nef.

Combining of subtype specific peptides from the hypervariable loop of the envelope glycoprotein gp120 of divergent HIV-1 isolates may help in designing a broadly protective immunogen against HIV-1 infection. To enhance the immunogenicity of such a polyvalent antigen, in the absence of oil-containing adjuvants, it is necessary to link the peptides to a protein carrier. It is preferable to use as carriers those proteins from HIV-1 itself which may contribute to eliciting protective immunity. The structural and non-structural proteins, gag P18 and nef, respectively, which can be prepared in high yields by recombinant DNA techniques in Escherichia coli, were selected for this purpose. The corresponding peptide-protein conjugates, each containing 21 distinct peptides, were prepared using the cross-linking reagents N-succinimidyl-3-(2-pyridyldithio)-propionate (SPDP) or m-maleimidobenzoyl-N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide ester (sulfo-MBS). Conjugates prepared by the second method elicited approximately 10-100 times higher levels of antibodies recognizing the homologous peptides and the HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins. The sulfo-MBS conjugation procedure preserved the antigenicity of both gag P18 and nef and the respective conjugates elicited an immune response to these proteins. Despite the low immunization dose of single peptides (10 micrograms) present in the mixture of peptides collectively linked to the carriers, antibody responses to most of the individual peptides were high (dilution endpoints 1: greater than 16,000, 1: greater than 80,000 for the nef and gag P18 conjugates, respectively). Conjugates consisting of a multitude of HIV-1 envelope-derived peptides in combination with gag P18 and nef carriers are expected to elicit broadly protective immunity against distinct HIV-1 subtypes.

Solvoplex: a new type of synthetic vector for intrapulmonary gene delivery.

A novel type of synthetic vector, termed solvoplex, is described that can greatly enhance gene expression in lung after intrapulmonary delivery. Solvoplexes consist of plasmid DNA and organic solvents. Several organic solvents were analyzed, and luciferase reporter gene expression was observed after intrapulmonary delivery of solvoplexes containing DPSO (di-n-propylsulfoxide), TMU (tetramethylurea), or BMSO (butylmethylsulfoxide). Expression levels correlated with the amount of solvent used at constant DNA amounts. Highest expression was obtained in the lung after intratracheal injection with 15% DPSO resulting in an increase up to 440-fold compared with DNA alone. DPSO-solvoplexes (15%) gave higher reporter gene expression than polyplexes (ExGen 500) or lipoplexes (DOTAP-cholesterol or DOTAP-DOPE). Solvoplex-mediated gene expression did not depend on the delivery mode, and was observed in both mice and rats. Readministration of DPSO-solvoplexes was possible. A second injection after 4 weeks resulted in expression levels similar to the first administration. Histological analyses using lacZ and GFP reporter genes demonstrated gene expression in the lung airway epithelium after intratracheal and microspray delivery. When luciferase expression levels in lung homogenates were compared with adenovirus vectors, DPSO-solvoplexes were 4- or 100-fold less efficient, depending on the promoter used in the viral vector. A quantitative histological comparison between solvoplexes and adenovirus vectors in the best expressing regions revealed that solvoplexes yielded about 2% LacZ-positive cells in the lung airway epithelium, and adenovirus vectors about 20%. Using the microsprayer system, we demonstrated that DNA remained intact in solvoplexes on spraying and that reporter gene expression was observed in mice after intrapulmonary delivery of a solvoplex spray. DNA in DPSO-solvoplexes remained stable and functional after prolonged storage at room temperature.

Neuroleptic-induced acute dystonic reactions may be due to enhanced dopamine release on to supersensitive postsynaptic receptors.

Oral administration of butaperazine (40 mg per kilogram) to rats increased dopamine turnover, as measured by elevation of striatal and mesolimbic concentrations of homovanillic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, for 24 to 48 hours. Initially, this dose of butaperazine inhibited stereotyped behavior in response to subcutaneous administration of apomorphine, but this effect was reversed at 12 hours. Later, animals had normal or exaggerated responses to apomorphine. The data suggest that the critical 20- to 28-hour period after butaperazine administration, when most human acute dystonic reactions occur, normal or supersensitive cerebral dopamine receptors are exposed to an excessive synaptic release of dopamine. This may be responsible for the drug-induced dystonia.

Characterization of a schistosome T cell-stimulating antigen (Sm10) associated with protective immunity in humans.

Parasite antigens that are strong T cell immunogens represent potential candidates for vaccines against pathogens susceptible to T cell-mediated immunity. We have previously shown that chromatographic fractions of schistosomula extracts contain components that are major T cell immunogen(s) in natural schistosome infections in humans and might contribute to the induction of human protective immunity against this parasite. In the present study, we report on the molecular cloning and on the biochemical characterization of the active components of these fractions. The screening of a schistosomula cDNA expression library with antibodies raised against the fractions allowed the cloning of a cDNA that hybridized to a 0.56-kb mRNA of schistosomula and adult worms. This cDNA contains an open reading frame of 267 base pairs (bp) which encodes a 10-kDa polypeptide. The analysis of the cDNA sequence revealed 70% homology with the sequences of previously reported proteins of unknown function. The native molecules in the active fractions were analyzed by mass spectrometry after additional purification by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This procedure revealed two components in the fractions of molecular mass 10383 +/- 2 Da and 10401 +/- 9 Da. Both polypeptides stimulated immune T cells and yielded tryptic peptides whose sequences matched the sequence of the cloned molecule. These two polypeptides probably correspond to different post-translationally modified forms of the polypeptide encoded by the cloned cDNA.

Lipopolycationic telomers for gene transfer: synthesis and evaluation of their in vitro transfection efficiency.

We report on the synthesis of a series of lipopolyamine telomers I-14,n, I-18,n, and II-18,n and on their in vitro gene-transfer capability. Their structure consists of a polyamine polar moiety, including n primary amine functions (from 1 to 70), connected to a hydrophobic moiety, including two hydrocarbon C14 or C18 chains, through a mercaptopropanoyl or mercaptoglyceryl unit and an amide or ether function. They were obtained by telomerization of N-[2-[(BOC)aminoethyl]]acrylamide with N,N-ditetradecyl- and N,N-dioctadecylpropanamide-3-thiol and rac-1,2-dioctadecyloxypropane-3-thiol, respectively, then BOC deprotection. For N/P ratios (N = number of telomer amine equivalents; P = number of DNA phosphates) from 0.8 to 10, these lipopolyamines condensed DNA, with or without the use of DOPE, forming lipopolyplexes or teloplexes of mean sizes less than 200 nm. Some trends, structure-activity and structure-toxicity relationships, were established to achieve both highest in vitro transfection levels and cell viability. Thus, DNA formulations based on telomers I-14,20 and I-18,20 and for N/P ratios lower than 5 led to the most efficient teloplex formulations for plasmid delivery to lung epithelial A549 cells.

Antibody responses of chimpanzees immunized with synthetic peptides corresponding to full-length V3 hypervariable loops of HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins.

Immunization of primates or humans with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) glycoproteins usually elicited moderate immune responses to the principal neutralizing determinant (PND) located within the V3 hypervariable loop of gp120. Since an antibody response to the PND appears to be protective, experiments were carried out to determine the responsiveness of chimpanzees to immunization with synthetic peptides corresponding to the full-length V3 loop. Seven chimpanzees (4 preimmunized with gp160, 2 preimmunized with HIV-1 antigens unrelated to gp160, and 1 unimmunized) were vaccinated with a mixture of full-length V3 loop peptides from 21 distinct HIV-1 isolates (clones) either in unconjugated form or linked to carrier proteins from HIV-1 nef and gag P18, respectively. Six chimpanzees developed high levels of antibodies to the peptides (dilution endpoints 1: greater than 25,000), and 5 had high levels of antibodies to gp120 from HIV-1IIIB (endpoint titers 1: greater than 500,000). Chimpanzees immunized with peptide-carrier conjugates (4) had antibodies to the carrier proteins nef and gag P18, respectively (endpoint titers 1: greater than or equal to 35,000). Virus-neutralizing (VN) antibodies were detected in sera of 5 of 7 chimpanzees, but were present at titers of 1: greater than or equal to 400 only in sera of 2 chimpanzees. One of these was challenged with HIV-1 and was protected against infection, as reported elsewhere. The antibodies were primarily specific for the HIV-1 isolate used for primary immunization before boosting with peptides. The relatively low dilution endpoints of VN antibodies as compared with endpoints determined by site-specific immunoassays probably can be ascribed to imperfect mimicry of conformational epitopes by synthetic peptides. Nevertheless, sequential or simultaneous immunization with recombinant envelope glycoproteins of HIV-1 and selected synthetic peptides offers an approach for eliciting protective immunity against HIV-1.

Study of the interaction of HIV-1 and HIV-2 envelope glycoproteins with the CD4 receptor and role of N-glycans.

In order to further characterize the interaction of human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) with the CD4 receptor at the molecular level, a binding test was performed using iodine-labeled glycoproteins, 125I-gp160 from HIV-1 and 125I-gp140 from HIV-2, to bind to lymphoid cells expressing the CD4 receptor. The inhibition of binding of the radiolabeled glycoproteins to CD4+ cells by increasing concentrations of nonradiolabeled gp160 or gp140 was used to determine the affinity of the interaction between the glycoproteins and CD4. The gp-CD4 association occurs with a high affinity: K0.5 gpHIV-1 = 9 x 10(-9) M and K0.5 gpHIV-2 = 7 x 10(-8) M, indicating that the affinity of the interaction between HIV-2 gp140 and CD4 is 10 times lower than that observed with HIV-1 gp160. The N-linked glycans of the HIV-1 and HIV-2 glycoproteins account for a high proportion of their molecular mass (about 50%). Total deglycosylation of gp160 and gp140 by enzymatic treatment with Endo F-N glycanase occurred under nondenaturing conditions, indicating the high accessibility of the N-linked glycan chains in the three-dimensional structure of the molecule. Moreover, the deglycosylated proteins retained a significant binding capacity to CD4. These results show that the carbohydrate chains of HIV-2 gp140, as those of HIV-1 gp160, do not play a major role in the gp-CD4 interaction.

Immunogenicity and epitope mapping of a recombinant soluble gp160 of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein.

The human immunodeficiency virus 1 envelope glycoprotein is synthesized as a precursor, gp160, which is subsequently cleaved to generate the external gp120 and the transmembrane gp41. Both of these cleavage products are known to mediate critical functions of the virus. In order to define the best strategy for the development of a vaccine against human immunodeficiency virus 1, it could be important to map the crucial epitopes on gp160. This entire gp160 is uneasy to purify because it is readily subjected to proteolytic cleavage. Furthermore, it is anchored on the cell membrane and needs detergent treatment for purification. We thus used a recombinant gp160 which was engineered to remove the cleavage sites between gp120 and gp41 and the hydrophobic transmembrane in order to investigate the murine immune response. We selected a panel of 8 monoclonal antibodies which recognize different epitopes on the immunizing recombinant soluble gp160. The reactivity of the monoclonal antibodies was checked on virus-derived gp160, gp120, and gp41. Three antibodies reacted only with gp120 but the others were shown to react with gp41 epitopes or with discontinuous epitopes bridging gp120 and gp41. One subregion of these epitopes was located using a synthetic peptide corresponding to the sequence of gp41. This epitope is apparently part of an immunodominant site since it is recognized by three different monoclonal antibodies. We used competitive inhibition experiments to map the epitopes on recombinant gp160; therefore, the results are probably indicative of the folding of the recombinant soluble gp160 used for immunization.

Dopamine transporter binding in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome.

Preliminary studies in patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (TS) provided evidence of presynaptic dopaminergic dysfunction, demonstrating increased reuptake sites. Therefore we investigated striatal dopamine transporter binding in 12 TS patients and 9 control subjects using single photon emission computed tomography and 123I-labeled 2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(4-iodophenyl)tropane. In TS patients we found significantly higher relative striatal activity ratios (mean +/- SD 12.33 +/- 3.58) than in controls (9.36 +/- 1.35, P< 0.05). Only five patients, however, showed striatum/occipital cortex ratios more than 2 SD above the normal means. Seven patients had activity ratios within the average ratio of the control group plus 2 SD. Regarding the relationship between clinical parameters and striatum/occipital cortex ratios, we found an association between binding ratios and "self-injurious behavior" and "lack of impulse control." This study corroborates previous data suggesting an involvement of the dopaminergic system in TS pathology. Our results demonstrate that an increase in dopamine transporter capacity is a possible but not a necessary alteration, and which appears more likely when self-injurious behavior and lack of impulse control are associated.

A multi-mode chromatographic method for the comparison of the N-glycosylation of a recombinant HIV envelope glycoprotein (gp160s-MN/LAI) purified by two different processes.

The glycosylation pattern of a recombinant gp160s-MN/LAI variant of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was studied in relation to two alternative purification techniques one of which involves an immunoprecipitation step. For analysis a multi-mode high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method which combines gel permeation chromatography on the RAAM 2000 GlycoSequencer, weak anion exchange chromatography and normal phase chromatography was developed and profiles were obtained for the fluorescently-labelled glycans released from the two gp160s-MN/LAI preparations. Charged glycans accounted for 77 and 80% of the total glycans for the IAP- and SP-purified samples, respectively. The acidic character of these glycans was mainly due to the presence of sialic acids. However, following sialidase treatment, residual charged glycans were still found. No differences were found in the glycan distributions of the two gp160s-MN/LAI preparations either in their degree of sialylation or in their relative proportion of each separated structure. Although this did not reach statistical significance, a lower proportion of large glycan structures regardless of their charge status was found on the gp160s-MN/LAI prepared by the procedure which involved an immunoaffinity chromatography step.

Renal gluconate excretion after 6-aminonicotinamide.

After application of 6-aminonicotinamide, an increasing amount of gluconate was found in the urine. No correlation with the renal excretion of electrolytes could be established.

Glucose metabolism in C-1300 neuroblastoma cells after inhibition of hexose monophosphate pathway.

1. Application of 6-AN (0.01 mg/ml) leads to a strong accumulation of 6-PG in C-1300 neuroblastoma cells which, however, only amounts to one third of that found in C-6 glial cells. 2. In C-1300 neuroblastoma cells dephosphorylation of the accumulated 6-PG causes a rise of the intracellular gluconate to eight times the value found for 6-PG. It is four times higher than the gluconate content observed in C-6 glial cells. 3. Although 6-PG is a competitive inhibitor of PGI it causes no reduction of glycolytic flux and ATP content in stationary phase C-1300 neuroblastoma cells in contrast to the strong reduction of glycolytic flux and ATP content observed in C-glial cells. 4. The intracellular Glc-6-P and Fru-6-P content of C-1300 neuroblastoma cells increases by four to five times after treatment with 6-AN. Both this increase and the decrease of Fru-1,6-P2 content point to an inhibition of the phosphofructokinase. 5. In contrast to C-6 glial cells no morphological changes could be observed in C-1300 neuroblastoma cells up to 24 h after administration of 6-AN.

Glycolysis and glycogen metabolism after inhibition of hexose monophosphate pathway in C6-GLIAL cells.

1. 6-Aminonicotinamide (0.01 mg/ml) leads to a strong accumulation of 6-PG in C6 glial cells after 24h. 2. The accumulated 6-PG is dephosphorylated to gluconate which easily permeates the cell membrane. Extracellular gluconate is formed at a rate of 12% of the total glucose consumption. 3. 6-PG as competitive inhibitor of the PG1 caused a reduction of the glycolytic flux of about 40%. 4. The reduced glycolytic flux lowers the ATP concentration under anaerobic conditions to 75% of the controls. 5. The glycogen content after 6-AN is increased by 50%, probably by the activation of the glycogen synthetase due to the higher Glc 6-P concentration. 6. The fibroblast-like morphology of the C6 cell line has typically changed under 6-aminonicotinamide.

Direct lipid quantitation of cationic liposomes by reversed-phase HPLC in lipoplex preparation process.

The proposed reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography method with ultraviolet detection provides a simple and rapid procedure to separate and quantitate lipids from cationic liposomes used in gene transfer. We describe experimental conditions which do not require lipid extraction from liposomes prior to sample analysis. Evaluation of the method reported here showed suitable lipid separation capacity and quantitation accuracy from cationic liposomes composed of either the pentammonio lipid pcTG90 and dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine, or 1, 2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylamonium propane and cholesterol. Detection limits were in the range of 0.5-1 microg depending on the lipid. This quantitative method has proven useful in lipoplex formulation processing development and its application may be extended to a wide range of lipid-based gene and drug delivery systems.

Potential of low molecular mass chitosan as a DNA delivery system: biocompatibility, body distribution and ability to complex and protect DNA.

Cationic polymers have the potential for DNA complexation and it is recognised that they may be useful as non-viral vectors for gene delivery. Highly purified chitosan fractions of < 5000 Da (N1), 5000-10,000 Da (N2) and > 10,000 Daltons (N3) were prepared and characterised in respect of their cytotoxicity, ability to cause haemolysis, ability to complex DNA as well as to protect DNA from nuclease degradation. Also the biodistribution of 125I-labelled chitosans was followed at 5 and 60 min after intravenous injection into male Wistar rats. All chitosan fractions displayed little cytotoxicity against CCRF-CEM and L132 cells (IC50 > 1 mg/ml), and they were not haemolytic (< 15% lysis after 1 and 5 h). Chitosan-DNA interaction at a charge ration of 1:1 was much greater than seen for poly(L-lysine) and complexation resulted in inhibition of DNA degradation by DNase II: 99.9 +/- 0.1, 99.1 +/- 1.5 and 98.5 +/- 2.0% for N1, N2 and N3, respectively. After intravenous injection, all the chitosans showed rapid blood clearance, the plasma levels at 1 h being 32.2 +/- 10.5% of recovered dose for N1 and 2.6 +/- 0.5% of recovered dose for N3. Liver accumulation was molecular mass dependent, being 26.5 +/- 4.9% of the recovered dose for N1 and 82.7 +/- 1.9% of the recovered dose for N3. The observations that the highly purified chitosan fractions used were neither toxic nor haemolytic, that they have the ability to complex DNA and protect against nuclease degradation and that low molecular weight chitosan can be administered intravenously without liver accumulation suggest there is potential to investigate further low molecular weight chitosans as components of a synthetic gene delivery system.

123I-IBZM SPECT: reconstruction methodology and results in parkinsonism and dystonia.

In 58 patients with Parkinsonism or dystonia striatal dopamine D2 receptors were investigated using 123I-iodobenzamide (123I-IBZM) single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). The influence of SPECT reconstruction methodology on semiquantification and the clinical value of 123I-IBZM SPECT were evaluated. Delineation of the striatal uptake and striatum/frontal cortex (ST/FC) ratios were improved by the use of compensation procedures for scatter and attenuation as well as the choice of an adequate filter. Satisfactory results were achieved using a Metz prefilter with a comparatively high order number (i.e. high cut-off and low suppression of higher frequencies via roll-off). Regarding clinical diagnoses it was not possible to differentiate between advanced idiopathic Parkinson's disease (IP) and Parkinsonism of other aetiology (OP) on the basis of 123I-IBZM SPECT. But patients with IP and favourable response to L-Dopa showed significantly higher ST/FC ratios than those with fluctuating response. In patients with dystonia ST/FC ratios were significantly higher compared to patients with IP or OP.

[[123I]beta-CIT SPECT imaging of dopamine and serotonin transporters in Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy.

AIMS: Definition of the regional pattern of dopamine transporter (DAT) dysfunction in advanced Parkinson's disease (PD) and evaluation of a potential correlation between DAT binding and symptoms; elucidation of the role of DAT imaging in the differential diagnosis of PD and multiple system atrophy (MSA); assessment and comparison of serotonin transporter (SERT) binding in PD and MSA. METHODS: [(123)I]beta-CIT SPECT was performed in 14 patients with advanced PD, 10 with moderate MSA and 20 healthy persons. Specific to nonspecific tracer binding ratios (V(3)") were calculated via ROI analysis of uptake images at 4 h (SERT binding) and 24 h (DAT binding) p. i. RESULTS: In PD bilateral reduction of striatal DAT binding (63-70%) was seen. The caudate ipsilateral to the clinically predominantly affected side showed relatively the least impairment. Significant correlations (r = -0.54 to -0.64) between DAT binding and Hoehn and Yahr stage, UPDRS-scores and duration of disease were found. In MSA DAT binding was less reduced (40-48%) targeting the putamen contralateral to the side of clinical predominance. Significantly lower SERT binding was observed in PD midbrain and MSA hypothalamus compared to controls -- and in MSA relative to PD mesial frontal cortex. CONCLUSIONS: In advanced PD striatal DAT binding is markedly reduced with the least reduction in caudate ipsilateral to the clinically predominantly affected side. In moderate MSA with asymmetrical symptoms DAT dysfunction is predominant in the contralateral putamen, a pattern seen in early PD. The reduction of SERT in the midbrain area of PD patients suggests additional tegmental degeneration while in MSA the serotonergic system seems to be more generally affected.

Interaction of human epidermal Langerhans cells with HIV-1 viral envelope proteins (gp 120 and gp 160s) involves a receptor-mediated endocytosis independent of the CD4 T4A epitope.

The CD4 molecule is known to be the preferential receptor for the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein. Epidermal Langerhans cells are dendritic cells which express several surface antigens, among them CD4 antigens. To clarify the exact role of CD4 molecules in Langerhans cell infection induced by HIV-1, we investigated the possible involvement of the interactions between HIV-1 gp 120 or HIV-1 gp 160s (soluble gp 160) and Langerhans cell surface. We also assessed the expression of CD4 molecules on Langerhans cell membranes dissociated by means of trypsin from their neighbouring keratinocytes. The cellular phenotype was monitored using flow cytometry and quantitative immunoelectron microscopy. We reported that human Langerhans cells can bind the viral envelope proteins (gp 120 or gp 160s), and that this binding does not depend on CD4 protein expression. This binding is not blocked by anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies. We show that a proportion of gp 120/gp 160s-receptor complexes enters Langerhans cells by a process identified as a receptor-mediated endocytosis. The amount of surface bound gp 120/gp 160s is not consistent with the amount of CD4 antigens present on Langerhans cell membranes. Gp 120/gp 160s binding sites on Langerhans cell suspensions appeared to be trypsin resistant, while CD4 antigens (at least the epitopes known to bind the HIV-1) are trypsin sensitive. A burst of gp 120 receptor expression was detected on 1-day cultured Langerhans cells while CD4 antigens disappeared. These findings lead to the most logical conclusion that binding of gp 120/gp 160s is due to the presence of a Langerhans cell surface molecule different from CD4 antigens.

[Differential diagnosis of cholestasis by non-invasive methods--comparison of cholecysto-cholangiography, ultrasonics and hepatobiliary sequential scintigraphy]. / Differentialdiagnostik der Cholestase mit nichtinvasiven Untersuchungs-methoden - Vergleich von Cholezysto-Cholangiographie, Ultraschall und hepatobiliärer Sequenzszintigraphie.

The value of the three non-invasive morphological methods--cholangiography, sonography, and cholescintigraphy--in the differential diagnosis of "surgical" and "non-surgical" cholestasis was assessed prospectively in 28 patients. The main disadvantage of cholangiography was the large number of patients (11 out of 28) in whom the biliary tract could not be visualized. Correct diagnosis was achieved by sonography in 25 out of 28 and by cholescintigraphy in 23 out of 28 patients.

[In vitro and in vivo studies using 111 indium oxine, 111 indium oxine sulfate and 99m Tc oxine in erythrocyte labeling]. / In-vitro- und In-vivo-Untersuchungen mit 111Indium-Oxin-111Indium-Oxin-Sulfat und 99mTc-Oxin zur Erythrozytenmarkierung.

The optimal conditions for red blood cell labelling using 111indium oxine, 111indium oxine sulphate and 99mTc oxine were established both in vitro as well as in vivo. The coagulant had no effect on labelling efficiency. Other variables such as the incubation time, temperature, duration, cell number and concentration of the complex exert a significant influence on labelling efficiency. Labelling efficiency of red blood cells is very high also under non-optimum conditions as compared with other cells (leucocytes, platelets).