Biomarkers of Tolerance in Kidney Transplantation: Are We Predicting Tolerance or Response to Immunosuppressive Treatment?

We and others have previously described signatures of tolerance in kidney transplantation showing the differential expression of B cell-related genes and the relative expansions of B cell subsets. However, in all of these studies, the index group-namely, the tolerant recipients-were not receiving immunosuppression (IS) treatment, unlike the rest of the comparator groups. We aimed to assess the confounding effect of these regimens and develop a novel IS-independent signature of tolerance. Analyzing gene expression in three independent kidney transplant patient cohorts (232 recipients and 14 tolerant patients), we have established that the expression of the previously reported signature was biased by IS regimens, which also influenced transitional B cells. We have defined and validated a new gene expression signature that is independent of drug effects and also differentiates tolerant patients from healthy controls (cross-validated area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUC] = 0.81). In a prospective cohort, we have demonstrated that the new signature remained stable before and after steroid withdrawal. In addition, we report on a validated and highly accurate gene expression signature that can be reliably used to identify patients suitable for IS reduction (approximately 12% of stable patients), irrespective of the IS drugs they are receiving. Only a similar approach will make the conduct of pilot clinical trials for IS minimization safe and hence allow critical improvements in kidney posttransplant management.

Tumor lysis syndrome and acute renal failure--an increasing spectrum of presentations.

Tumor lysis syndrome has historically been associated with hyperuricemia and uric acid crystal deposition. We present three cases of tumor lysis syndrome resulting in renal failure in the context of normouricema, highlighting the spectrum of clinical presentations and mechanisms of renal damage. Two cases occurred following the treatment of hematological malignancies and were associated with hyperphosphatemia; the third resulted from ischemic necrosis following transarterial chemoembolization of a hepatic tumor. We also discuss the role of renal biopsy in the investigation of tumor lysis syndrome.

Diagnostic contribution of renal allograft biopsies at various intervals after transplantation.

Renal allograft biopsy is the accepted gold standard for investigating episodes of graft dysfunction in the early posttransplant period. The situation is less clear in late transplant biopsies. Later renal biopsies performed for graft dysfunction or as part of a routine investigative protocol have not been subjected to detailed critical evaluation. Two hundred sixty-three consecutive renal allograft biopsies in a single center were evaluated. They were arbitrarily divided into three groups based on interval after transplantation: group 1, up to 3 months (n=117); group 2, 4-12 months (n=60); and group 3, greater than 12 months after transplantation (n=86). There were no significant differences in demographic factors among the groups. The mean interval after transplantation was 0.8+/-0.1 months in group 1, 6.1+/-0.3 months in group 2, and 40.1+/-3.4 months in group 3. There were six principal diagnostic categories: acute rejection (AR), chronic rejection (CR), cyclosporine (CsA) nephrotoxicity, acute tubular necrosis (ATN), normal, and others. A statistically significant decrease in the frequency of AR (P<0.001) was seen in group 3 (3%) compared with groups 1 (43%) and 2 (37%). In contrast, the frequency of CR was significantly higher (P<0.001) in group 3 (71%) compared with groups 1 (0) and 2 (10%). ATN was seen almost exclusively in group 1. All but one of the 37 patients with ATN were in this group. CsA nephrotoxicity remained an important cause of graft dysfunction in all three groups, with no significant difference in incidence among the three groups. The differences between groups with other histological types were not significant. Patient management was changed based on the biopsy report in 84 patients in group 1 (72%), 45 patients in group 2 (75%), and only 16 patients in group 3 (19%) (P<0.001). In only seven patients in group 3 did the change in management result in a significant change in serum creatinine. All of these seven patients had CsA nephrotoxicity on biopsy and also had a significantly higher level of CsA compared with those with AR or CR. Thus, the diagnosis might have been possible without the need for biopsy. We conclude that late renal allograft biopsies are only rarely helpful in patient management and as such should be an investigation of last resort.

Reversible renal failure due to the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, pre-eclampsia and renal thrombotic microangiopathy.

A 27-year-old Caucasian female, with a past history of recurrent spontaneous abortions, was admitted with pre-eclampsia at 26 weeks' gestation during her sixth pregnancy. She was previously known to have antiphospholipid antibodies since her fifth abortion, but had no clinical or serological evidence of systemic lupus erythematosus. A small-for-dates infant was delivered by emergency Caesarean section at 27 weeks for poor placental blood flow and fetal distress. She was transferred to the renal unit on the sixth post partum day with pulmonary edema, hypertension, disseminated intravascular coagulation and acute renal failure. Renal biopsy showed lesions compatible with thrombotic microangiopathy with diffuse glomerular necrosis. She was plasma exchanged and remained dialysis dependent for 7 months. Antiphospholipid antibodies were present in high titres and were the presumed cause of her acute renal failure. The patient now has stable renal function with a creatinine clearance of 30 ml/min for over two years. The late recovery of renal function is unique in the above circumstances.

Oral pefloxacin in the treatment of CAPD peritonitis.

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD), a widely used replacement therapy for end stage renal failure, is frequently complicated by bacterial peritonitis. The infecting organisms are mainly staphylococci and gram negative aerobes. Pefloxacin is a fluorinated quinolone with good in-vitro activity against these pathogens. The objective of this open non comparative study is to determine the effectiveness and safety of oral pefloxacin mesylate as a single first line antimicrobial treatment of CAPD peritonitis. 28 episodes of CAPD peritonitis were treated with a stat dose of pefloxacin 800 mg. followed by 400 mg. 12 hourly for about 15-18 days. A pefloxacin sensitive organism was isolated in 17 episodes. 11 episodes were culture negative. Treatment results showed a cure in seventeen (60.7%), no treatment response in seven (25%), and relapses in four (14.2%). Side effects encountered were not serious except for one incident of a generalized seizure. We conclude that oral pefloxacin is convenient, safe and effective enough as a single first line antimicrobial treatment for CAPD peritonitis.

Once daily felodipine monotherapy in mild to moderate hypertension.

In a single-blind study conducted at our centres, 78 hypertensive patients were enrolled with 58 completing the study according to the protocol. Mean supine and standing blood pressures were significantly reduced after treatment with felodipine, reductions being 27/21 mmHg (p < 0.0001) and 25/19 mmHg (p < 0.0001) respectively. Of 46 patients given felodipine 5 mg, 44 (95.7%) achieved target blood pressure defined as a diastolic blood pressure of < 90 mmHg, while all 12 patients on felodipine 10 mg did so. The 2 patients who did not achieve target pressure at the final visit did so on previous visits. There were no differences in pre and post-treatment laboratory variables. Treatment was discontinued in 6 patients because of headaches. No adverse events of clinical significance were reported in the 58 patients who completed the study. In conclusion, we found felodipine given once daily to be effective in the treatment of mild to moderate hypertension.

Increased plasma malondialdehyde levels in glomerular disease as determined by a fully validated HPLC method.

BACKGROUND: Reactive oxygen species and particularly free radical induced lipid peroxidative tissue damage have been implicated in the pathogenesis of various renal diseases. Lipid peroxidation is assessed indirectly by the measurement of secondary products, such as malondialdehyde (MDA), using the widely employed thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) method. However, this method lacks sensitivity and specificity. We have therefore developed and validated an HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) method for measurement of MDA and applied this to a variety of plasma samples in renal patients. METHODS: The optimized method involves antioxidant treatment of the plasma sample, followed by a protein precipitation step using trichloroacetic acid, acid hydrolysis and formation of an MDA thiobarbituric acid complex. The MDA-(TBA)2 adduct is separated from other interfering compounds by C18 reverse-phase HPLC techniques, with visible detection at 532 nm. RESULTS: The assay was linear over the ranges 0.25-1.0 microM MDA and the detection limit was 0.06 microM MDA. Within-run precision was <4.5% and between-run precision was <10.0%. MDA plasma concentrations (mean+/-SD) were higher in ESRF diabetic patients (0.32 +/- 0.14 microM, n=20), non-diabetic ESRF patients (0.32 +/- 0.09 microM, n=20), and CRF patients (0.14 +/- 0.06 microM, n=40) compared to healthy controls (0.11 +/- 0.03 microM, n=40), (P < 0.001, P < 0.001 and P = 0.008). Levels were similar in healthy controls with normal renal function and transplanted patients (0.12 +/- 0.03 microM MDA, n=40), (P=NS). No correlation was observed between MDA and creatinine levels (r2 = 0.05, n=80), which suggests that MDA does not correlate with the degree of renal impairment. We matched CRF patients with glomerular and non-glomerular causes of renal failure for creatinine levels and found that MDA levels were higher in patients with glomerulonephritis (0.16 +/- 0.06 microM) than in those with CRF from non-glomerular causes (0.12 +/- 0.04 microM, P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: We have introduced a reliable and sensitive HPLC technique to enhance the specificity of MDA-(TBA)2 measurement, with a significant improvement in HPLC column life. Using this method, picomole quantities of MDA can be detected in plasma. We have shown that MDA levels are significantly raised in patients with CRF due to glomerulonephritis, regardless of serum creatinine, which suggests that there is oxidative injury independent of any possible MDA retention due to renal impairment.

The temporal relationship between urinary C5b-9 and C3dg and clinical parameters in human membranous nephropathy.

We have previously reported that urinary excretion of the complement activation products C3dg and C5b-9 in human membranous nephropathy (MN) correlated with clinical outcome in a cross-sectional analysis. We report here the results of a retrospective longitudinal study of the temporal relationship between urinary C3dg and C5b-9 excretion and clinical parameters. A group of 23 adult patients with biopsy-proven MN were studied over a mean time period per patient of 3.5 years. Freshly voided urine samples were collected regularly; C3dg and C5b-9 were measured by ELISA (mean number of samples per patient = 13). During the period of the study, nine patients with declining renal function (group A) were treated with a standard steroid regimen. Serum creatinine had improved or stabilized in seven of these patients at the end of treatment. All nine patients were excreting C3dg and C5b-9 before treatment. Six other patients with declining renal function (group B) were not treated with steroids because of clinical contraindications. Serum creatinine continued to increase during the study in four of these six patients. C3dg and C5b-9 were present in the urine samples of these six patients on the majority of dates tested. Eight patients maintained stable renal function during the study (group C), either normal (6 patients) or impaired (2 patients). Of these patients, six were consistently negative for urinary C3dg and C5b-9 despite persistent proteinuria, and one patient who was initially positive became negative within 15 months, and remained negative for the rest of the study period. One patient was positive on one of 12 occasions tested. These results suggest that urinary complement activation products indicate ongoing active glomerular damage and may prove to be important determinants for the introduction and monitoring of therapy.

Renal ammonia in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.

Recent studies have suggested that defective medullary trapping of ammonia underlies the acidosis associated with renal failure and sets in motion maladaptive compensatory mechanisms that contribute to the progression of renal disease. Since a renal concentrating defect is an early functional abnormality in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), defective medullary trapping and urinary excretion of ammonia may also occur early and have important pathophysiological consequences. The urinary pH and excretions of ammonia, titratable acid, and bicarbonate, were measured during a 24-hour baseline period and following the administration of ammonium chloride (100 mg/kg body wt) in ADPKD patients with normal glomerular filtration rate and in age- and gender-matched healthy control subjects. The distal nephron hydrogen ion secretory capacity was assessed during a bicarbonate infusion. Ammonia, sodium, pH, C3dg, and C5b-9 were measured in cyst fluid samples. The excretion rates of ammonia during the 24-hour baseline period and following the administration of ammonium chloride were significantly lower, and the relationship of ammonia excretion to urinary pH was significantly shifted downward in ADPKD. No difference in the increment of urinary pCO2 (delta pCO2) or the peripheral blood-urine pCO2 gradient (U-B pCO2) between ADPKD patients and control subjects was detected during a sodium bicarbonate infusion. Calculated concentrations of free-base ammonia in cyst fluid samples exceeded those calculated from reported concentrations of ammonia in renal venous blood of normal subjects. C3dg and C5b-9 were detected in some cyst fluids. The urinary excretion of ammonia is reduced in ADPKD patients with normal glomerular filtration rate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Membranous nephropathy complicating adenolymphoma of the parotid (Warthin's tumour).

Membranous nephropathy has been described in association with many malignancies including various lymphomas. However, it has not been previously described as a complication of benign solid adenolymphoma of the parotid, also called Warthin's tumour. We describe a patient who presented with an adenolymphoma of the parotid, and developed a severe nephrotic syndrome due to membranous nephropathy 6 months after the parotid swelling. The nephrotic syndrome resolved following parotidectomy and a short course of immunosuppression with prednisolone and cyclophosphamide. The possible pathophysiologic mechanisms are discussed.

Urinary C5b-9 excretion and clinical course in idiopathic human membranous nephropathy.

Recent reports suggested that the presence of terminal complement complex (C5b-9) in urine from patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) may indicate on-going immunological damage. This report documents the relationship between C5b-9 excretion and clinical outcome in 35 adult patients with biopsy-proven IMN and progressively declining renal function. There were two groups of patients. Group I received one of three treatment regimens: prednisolone alone, prednisolone and chlorambucil, or prednisolone and cyclophosphamide (N = 22). Group II received no immunosuppressive therapy (N = 17). Three of the 18 patients receiving immunosuppressive drugs had more than one treatment regimen as they experienced a clinical relapse during the study period; hence 22 treatments were available for analysis. Urine samples were collected regularly and urinary C5b-9 (uC5b-9) was determined by ELISA. Both groups were similar with respect to age, sex distribution, and the duration of follow-up. An improvement in proteinuria and creatinine clearance was noted in the immunosuppressed group. Thirty-five patients were excreting C5b-9 initially (18 from group I and 17 from group II); 17 patients continued to excrete C5b-9 at the end of the observation period. These 17 patients had a significantly worse clinical outcome when compared to the 18 patients whose C5b-9 excretion became negative, either spontaneously or with treatment (P < 0.005). These results indicate that continuing C5b-9 excretion is correlated with a poor clinical outcome. They also suggest that uC5b-9 is a dynamic marker of ongoing immunological injury, and therefore may be useful in the initial assessment and monitoring of patients with IMN and in identifying patients who may derive benefit from immunosuppressive therapy.

Development of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I-associated adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma during immunosuppressive treatment following renal transplantation.

Although it is recognized that there is an increased incidence of lymphoproliferative disorders among patients who have received immunosuppressive therapy following transportation, there have been few reports of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) developing in previously asymptomatic carriers of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) who have undergone transplantation. We describe the development of such a tumor in a man who was HTLV-I-positive and received immunosuppressive treatment following renal transplantation. As the number of individuals in ethnic groups at risk for organ transplantation increases, it would seem prudent to screen such individuals for carriage of HTLV-I before transplantation and to follow them prospectively to confirm if transplantation and immunosuppression predispose to the development of ATLL.