Rapid identification and sorting of viable virus-reactive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells based on antigen-triggered CD137 expression.

Current methods for the detection and isolation of antigen-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells require the availability of peptide/MHC multimers or are restricted to cells that produce cytokines after antigen contact. Here we show that de novo cell surface expression of the TNF-receptor family member CD137 (4-1BB) identifies recently activated, but not resting, human CD4(+) and CD8(+) memory T cells. Maximum CD137 expression level is uniformly observed in both T-cell subsets at 24h after stimulation with antigen. In experiments with CMV and EBV-reactive T cells, we confirmed the specificity of CD137 expression by co-staining with peptide/HLA tetramers. Substantial proportions of CD137(+) T cells did not produce IFN-gamma, suggesting that CD137 detects a broader repertoire of antigen-specific T cells. Activated CD137(+) T cells could be easily purified by MACS and expanded in vitro thereafter. This CD137-based enrichment method was capable of isolating 2-fold higher numbers of anti-viral CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells compared to the IFN-gamma secretion assay. In conclusion, antigen-triggered CD137 expression allows the rapid detection and sorting of virus-reactive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. The CD137 assay is most attractive for the simultaneous targeting of anti-viral T helper and effector cells in monitoring studies and adoptive immunotherapy trials.

Distinct roles for IL-1 receptor type I signaling in early versus established Leishmania major infections.

IL-1alpha/beta released by infected dendritic cells (DC) plays a critical role in the development of protective immunity against Leishmania major. Previous studies demonstrated that treatment of susceptible BALB/c mice with IL-1alpha during T-cell priming (days 1-3 post-infection) induced T helper (Th)1-mediated protection. In contrast, we now demonstrate that prolonged treatment with IL-1alpha (for 3 weeks) worsened disease outcome. To characterize the receptor involved, L. major infections in IL-1 receptor type I (IL-1RI) knockout mice were studied. In C57BL/6 IL-1RI-/- mice, the IL-1alpha-mediated protective effect was abrogated. The course of high-dose infection (2 x 10(5) parasites) in IL-1RI-/- mice was not different from controls. Surprisingly, in low-dose infections (10(3) parasites), IL-1RI-/- mice developed approximately 50% smaller lesions compared to wild types, decreased parasite loads and increased IFNgamma/IL-4 ratios. Interestingly, naive Th0 and Th2, but not Th1, cells expressed IL-1RI ex vivo. We conclude that IL-1RI mediates the effect of IL-1alpha in leishmaniasis in C57BL/6 mice. In addition, IL-1 appears to play distinct roles in Th education and maintenance. In early phases of physiologically relevant, low-dose L. major infections, IL-1 facilitates Th1 development from Th0 cells, whereas later on IL-1RI signaling promotes Th2 expansion and worsens disease outcome. Effects of IL-1 on disease outcome may be related to levels of IL-1RI on Th subpopulations.

Functional TCR retrieval from single antigen-specific human T cells reveals multiple novel epitopes.

The determination of the epitope specificity of disease-associated T-cell responses is relevant for the development of biomarkers and targeted immunotherapies against cancer, autoimmune, and infectious diseases. The lack of known T-cell epitopes and corresponding T-cell receptors (TCR) for novel antigens hinders the efficient development and monitoring of new therapies. We developed an integrated approach for the systematic retrieval and functional characterization of TCRs from single antigen-reactive T cells that includes the identification of epitope specificity. This is accomplished through the rapid cloning of full-length TCR-α and TCR-ß chains directly from single antigen-specific CD8(+) or CD4(+) T lymphocytes. The functional validation of cloned TCRs is conducted using in vitro-transcribed RNA transfer for expression of TCRs in T cells and HLA molecules in antigen-presenting cells. This method avoids the work and bias associated with repetitive cycles of in vitro T-cell stimulation, and enables fast characterization of antigen-specific T-cell responses. We applied this strategy to viral and tumor-associated antigens (TAA), resulting in the retrieval of 56 unique functional antigen-specific TCRs from human CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells (13 specific for CMV-pp65, 16 specific for the well-known TAA NY-ESO-1, and 27 for the novel TAA TPTE), which are directed against 39 different epitopes. The proof-of-concept studies with TAAs NY-ESO-1 and TPTE revealed multiple novel TCR specificities. Our approach enables the rational development of immunotherapy strategies by providing antigen-specific TCRs and immunogenic epitopes.

Excessive CpG 1668 stimulation triggers IL-10 production by cDC that inhibits IFN-alpha responses by pDC.

Upon stimulation with a wide range of concentrations of CpG oligodeoxynucleotide 2216 (CpG 2216), plasmacytoid DC are induced to produce type I IFN (IFN-alpha/beta). In contrast, CpG 1668 shows a bell-shaped dose-response correlation, i.e. only intermediate but not high doses of CpG 1668 induce IFN-alpha/beta. Interestingly, high-dose CpG 1668 completely inhibited IFN-alpha responses induced by CpG 2216. Experiments using supernatant of high-dose CpG-1668-treated cells indicated that secreted inhibitor(s) mediated the IFN-alpha shut-off. Among modulating cytokines, IL-10 turned out to be one important negative regulator. In line with this, supernatants of IL-10-deficient DC cultures stimulated with high-dose CpG 1668 did not inhibit IFN-alpha production. Interestingly, high-dose CpG 1668 also inhibited IFN-alpha responses induced by the DNA-encoded mouse cytomegalovirus, whereas IFN-alpha responses induced by negative-strand RNA-encoded vesicular stomatitis virus were only marginally affected. Experiments with DC cultures devoid of TLR9 indicated that TLR9 was critically required to mediate stimulatory and modulatory signals by low and high concentrations of CpG 1668, respectively. Analysis of purified DC subsets showed that conventional DC were the main IL-10 producers, whereas plasmacytoid DC hardly produced any IL-10.

Prophylactic transfer of CD8-depleted donor lymphocytes after T-cell-depleted reduced-intensity transplantation.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (SCT) regimens incorporating the lymphocytotoxic CD52 antibody alemtuzumab demonstrate efficient engraftment and reduced graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). However, these protocols substantially impair posttransplantation antiviral and antitumor immunity. To accelerate immune reconstitution after alemtuzumab-based reduced-intensity SCT, we administered prophylactic CD8-depleted donor lymphocyte infusions (DLIs) starting on days 60 and 120 after transplantation. DLIs were processed in an immunomagnetic good manufacturing practice depletion procedure resulting in a 2.5- to 6-log reduction in CD8 T cells. Of 23 high-risk patients with hematologic malignancies, 11 received a total of 21 CD8-depleted DLIs. Five patients developed transient grade I acute GVHD following transfer. Only 2 patients with HLA-C-mismatched donors showed grade II and III acute GVHD and subsequently progressed to limited chronic GVHD. Following DLIs, 4 patients with declining hematopoietic donor chimerism converted to full chimeras. A 2.1-fold median increase of circulating CD4 T cells was observed within 2 weeks after infusion. Non-DLI patients did not show a comparable rise in CD4 counts. Four patients demonstrated enhanced frequencies of cytomegalovirus-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells following transfer. Our results suggest that prophylactic CD8-depleted DLIs accelerate immune reconstitution after lymphodepleted HLA-matched SCT and carry a low risk of inducing severe GVHD.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes responding to low dose TRP2 antigen are induced against B16 melanoma by liposome-encapsulated TRP2 peptide and CpG DNA adjuvant.

The induction of a potent and specific T cell response is a major challenge in the development of efficacious cancer vaccine strategies. We applied a novel liposomal formulation (AVE3) for efficient delivery of antigenic peptides into APCs of the skin. These liposomes resulted in a long-lasting deposition of encapsulated compounds at the injection site and the draining lymph nodes. Using a peptide from the melanocyte differentiation antigen tyrosinase-related protein (TRP2) 2 we could show that vaccination with liposome-encapsulated peptide in combination with oligodeoxynucleotides containing unmethylated CpG motifs (CpG ODNs) as adjuvant leads to the induction of tumor cell-specific cytotoxic T cells. The most potent immune response was observed when both, TRP2 peptide and CpG ODNs, were encapsulated into AVE3. Importantly, in contrast to vaccination with free TRP2 liposomal TRP2 peptide generated T cells which respond to 1000-fold lower antigen concentration. Using the poorly immunogenic B16 melanoma model we could demonstrate that vaccination with liposomal TRP2 peptide plus CpG ODNs but not vaccination with free peptide or adjuvant alone resulted in tumor protection in subcutaneous and metastatic tumor models. In summary, vaccination with liposome-encapsulated peptide antigen and CpG ODN allows for the in vivo loading and activation of DC, thereby generating reactive CTL populations even against poorly immunogenic self-peptide presenting tumors resulting in a potent anti-tumor immune response.