Review of the Physiology and Anesthetic Considerations for Pleuroscopy/Medical Thoracoscopy.

Pleuroscopy or medical thoracoscopy is the second most common utilized procedure after bronchoscopy in the promising field of interventional pulmonology. Its main application is for the diagnosis and management of benign or malignant pleural effusions. Entry into the hemithorax is associated with pain and patient discomfort, whereas concurrently, notable pathophysiologic alterations occur. Therefore, frequently procedural sedation and analgesia is needed, not only to alleviate the patient's emotional stress and discomfort by mitigating the anxiety and minimizing the pain but also for yielding better procedural conditions for the operator. The scope of this review is to present the physiologic derangements occurring in pleuroscopy and compare the various anesthetic techniques and sedative agents that are currently being used in this context.

The history of intramedullary nailing.

PURPOSE: To summarize the evolution of intramedullary nailing, highlight important milestones, introduce the atmosphere of the era concerning the first uses and development of intramedullary nailing, and present the status of nailing in modern international orthopaedics and traumatology. METHOD: A thorough literature search was undertaken in PubMed and Google Scholar as well as in physical books in libraries to summarize the literature on the history and evolution of intramedullary nailing. RESULTS: The first use of an intramedullary device was attested in ancient Egypt; however, the first use of intramedullary nailing was reported in 1524 in Mexico, and the first medical journals reported on intramedullary nailing around the mid-1800s. The evolutions of intramedullary nailing including approach, material, cross-section and shape, and reaming technique occurred in the twentieth century. During the 1960s, intramedullary nailing was abandoned in favour of plate and screws osteosynthesis; however, in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, a surge of novelties including flexible reaming, interlocking, and use of image intensification and titanium nails led to the advent of the second-generation intramedullary nailing. Today, intramedullary nailing has become the standard treatment of long bone fractures with low infection rates, small scars, excellent stabilization of the fractures, and immediate mobilization of the patients. CONCLUSION: Intramedullary nailing has revolutionized the treatment of long bone fractures. However, with numerous nail designs, a lot of information on their efficacy is lacking. Considerably more work will need to be done to determine the optimal nail specifications.

CYP2D6 Basic Genotyping of Patients with Chronic Pain Receiving Tramadol or Codeine. A Study in a Greek Cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To assess CYP2D6 genotype prevalence in chronic pain patients treated with tramadol or codeine. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: General hospital, pain management unit. SUBJECTS: Patients with chronic pain, treated with codeine or tramadol. METHODS: Patients' pain was assessed at baseline (numeric rating scale [NRS]; 0-10). Prescription of codeine or tramadol was selected randomly. The assessment of patients' response to the drug in terms of pain relief and adverse effects was performed after 24 hours. Reduction of pain intensity of >50% or an NRS <4 was considered a positive response. Patients' blood samples were collected during the first visit. Genotyping for the common variants CYP2D6 *2, *3, *4, *5, *6, *9, *10, *14, and *17 was performed, and alleles not carrying any polymorphic allele were classified as CYP2D6*1 (wild-type [wt]). RESULTS: Seventy-six consecutive patients were studied (20 males, 56 females), aged 21-85 years. Thirty-four received tramadol and 42 codeine. The main genotypes of CYP2D6 identified were the wt/wt (35.5%), the *4/wt (17.1%), and the *6/wt (10.5%). Adverse effects were common, especially in carriers of *9/*9, *5/*5, *5/*4, and *10/*10, as well as in variants including the 4 allele (*4/*1 [38.4%] and *4/*4 [42.8%]). CONCLUSIONS: Genotyping can facilitate personalized pain management with opioids, as specific alleles are related to decreased efficacy and adverse effects.

The Asclepian art of medicine and surgery.

PURPOSE: To summarize the available information from mythology, archeology, and classical literature aiming to compose the image of Asclepieia, Asclepius, and the Asclepiads, and to depict the atmosphere of medicine in its infancy. METHOD: A thorough literature search was undertaken in PubMed and Google Scholar as well as in physical books in libraries to summarize the pharmacies and pain practices used for trauma in ancient Greece. RESULTS: The antiquity of medicine is confirmed by the worship of God Apollo and Asclepius, who were the persons who possessed the knowledge of medicine and surgery, and delivered it to mortals. The available archaeological data, stone offerings, and inscriptions from Asclepieia were the first testimonies of divine and human knowledge and provide insights on individual cases of patients cured by the Asclepiads. Sparse descriptions offer a first glimpse of the methods and means used by the first priests-physicians for wound healing and diseases treatment. CONCLUSION: Asclepieia established the roots of medicine and the first step of human knowledge, and contributed to the field of surgery and pharmacology that gave birth to the rational medicine. With Hippocrates and his research, the circle of Asclepieia ended, and the era of the organized medical schools with theories and experiments on every aspect of medicine begun.

The ABC and pain in trauma.

Musculoskeletal trauma in the emergency setting is a challenge for orthopaedic surgeons. Life- and limb-threatening injuries of the extremities should be treated as soon as possible, since major musculoskeletal trauma can be the cause of significant bleeding. However, musculoskeletal trauma is often related to thoracic trauma. Management of the former should be performed only after patient's airway is maintained and breathing is secured with appropriate pain monitoring and management by expert anesthesiologists. This article discusses the association of musculoskeletal with thoracic trauma care and emphasizes on pain as a vital sign in trauma.

A Lumbar Paravertebral Space Ultrasound Lumbar Plexus Block Technique for Hip Fracture Surgery in the Elderly.

Ultrasound imaging of peripheral nerves is challenging in elderly population. In cases involving the lumbar plexus (LP), we have employed ultrasound imaging and neurostimulation guidance for successful localization and block of the LP. The postero-medial segment of the psoas muscle (PSM), superior to the vertebral body and anterior to the transverse process ("corner pocket") was used as an imaging landmark for the implementation of the LP block. By advancing the needle through the lateral abdominal wall into the "corner pocket" we were afforded a seamless advancement of the needle into the postero-medial segment of the PSM, which is the standard anatomic position of LP in the PSM. Forty-eight patients in whom ultrasound imaging of the LP was not feasible, but the "corner pocket" was clearly depicted were included in the study. LP block characteristics and adverse events were recorded. The LP was localized in 43/48 patients. The average imaging, needling, and performance times to complete the block were 51 sec (range, 6-180 sec), 81 sec (range, 16-236 sec), and 132 sec (range, 24-270 sec), respectively. The median number of needle redirections per patient was 5.5 (range, 1-13). The local anesthetic spread was visualized in the postero-medial segment of the PSM in 39/43 patients. No complications were recorded. The imaging, needling, and performance times, as well as the number of needle passes did not significantly differ between obese and non-obese patients. In conclusion, in cases with challenging ultrasound imaging of the LP, ultrasound-assisted LP block can be accomplished through the lateral abdominal wall by using as an imaging landmark the "corner pocket" at the postero-medial quadrant of the PSM.

Monitored Anesthesia Care with Dexmedetomidine Supplemented by Midazolam/Fentanyl versus Midazolam/Fentanyl Alone in Patients Undergoing Pleuroscopy: Effect on Oxygenation and Respiratory Function.

Although pleuroscopy is considered a safe and well tolerated procedure with a low complication rate, it requires the administration of procedural sedation and analgesia. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of dexmedetomidine administration on oxygenation and respiratory function in patients undergoing diagnostic or therapeutic pleuroscopy. Through a prospective, single center, cohort study, we studied 55 patients receiving either a dexmedetomidine intravenous infusion supplemented by midazolam/fentanyl (Group DEX + MZ/F) or a conventional sedation protocol with midazolam/fentanyl (Group MZ/F). Our primary outcome was the changes in lung gas exchange (PaO2/FiO2 ratio) obtained at baseline and at predetermined end points, while changes in respiratory mechanics (FEV1, FVC and the ratio FEV1/FVC) and PaCO2 levels, drug consumption, time to recover from sedation and adverse events were our secondary endpoints (NCT03597828). We found a lower postoperative decrease in FEV1 volumes in Group DEX + MZ/F compared to Group MZ/F (p = 0.039), while FVC, FEV1/FVC and gas exchange values did not differ between groups. We also found a significant reduction in midazolam (p < 0.001) and fentanyl consumption (p < 0.001), along with a more rapid recovery of alertness postprocedure in Group DEX + MZ/F compared to Group MZ/F (p = 0.003), while pain scores during the postoperative period, favored the Group DEX + MZ/F (p = 0.020). In conclusion, the use of intravenous dexmedetomidine during pleuroscopy is associated with a smaller decrease in FEV1, reduction of the consumption of supplementary sedatives and analgesics and quicker awakening of patients postoperatively, when compared to midazolam/fentanyl. Therefore, dexmedetomidine administration may provide clinically significant benefits in terms of lung mechanics and faster recovery of patients undergoing pleuroscopy.

Combining Minimally Invasive Techniques in Managing a Frail Patient with Postpneumonectomy Bronchopleural Fistula.

A postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula is a life-threatening complication requiring aggressive treatment and early repair. Reoperations are common due to initial treatment failure. Advanced bronchoscopic techniques are rapidly evolving, but permanent results are questionable. We report the minimally invasive management of a frail 79-year-old patient with postpneumonectomy fistula in respiratory failure due to repeated infections. Previous bronchoscopic closure attempts with fibrin failed. The multistep interdisciplinary management included airway surveillance by virtual bronchoscopy, percutaneous fibrin glue instillation under computed tomography, and awake thoracoscopic surgery to achieve temporary closure. This provided an acceptable long period of symptomatic and physical improvement. The bronchial stump failed again four months later, and the patient succumbed to pneumonia. Pneumonectomy has to be avoided unless strongly indicated. Complications are best managed with surgery for definite treatment. We emphasize our approach only when a patient declines surgery or is medically unfit as a temporary time-buying strategy in view of definite surgery in a high-volume center.

Peripheral nerve blocks in the cervical region: from anatomy to ultrasound-guided techniques.

Cervical plexus nerve blocks have been employed in various head and neck operations. Both adequate anaesthesia and analgesia are attained in clinical practice. Nowadays, ultrasound imaging in regional anaesthesia is driven towards a certain objective that dictates high accuracy and safety during the implementation of peripheral nerve blocks. In the cervical region, ultrasound-guided nerve blocks have routinely been conducted only for the past few years and thus only a small number of publications pervade the current literature. Moreover, the sonoanatomy of the neck, the foundation stone of interventional techniques, is very challenging; multiple muscles and fascial layers compose a complex of compartments in a narrow anatomic region, in which local anaesthetics are injected. Therefore, this review intends to deliver new insights into ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve block techniques in the neck. The sonoanatomy of the cervical region, in addition to the cervical plexus, cervical ganglia, superior and recurrent laryngeal nerve blocks are comprehensively discussed.

Pain is vital in resuscitation in trauma.

Implementation of the ATLS algorithm has remarkably improved the resuscitation of trauma patients and has significantly contributed to the systematic management of multi-trauma patients. However, pain remains the most prevalent complaint in trauma patients, and can induce severe complications, further deterioration of health, and death of the patient. Providing appropriate and timely pain management to these patients prompts early healing, reduces stress response, shortens hospital Length of Stay (LOS), diminishes chronic pain, and ultimately reduces morbidity and mortality. Pain has been proposed to be evaluated as the fifth vital sign and be recorded in the vital sign charts in order to emphasize the importance of pain on short- and long-term outcomes of the patients. However, although the quality of pain treatment seems to be improving we believe that pain has been underestimated in trauma. This article aims to provide evidence for the importance of pain in trauma, to support its management in the emergency setting and the acute phase of patients' resuscitation, and to emphasize on the necessity to introduce the letter P (pain) in the ATLS alphabet.

Cardiovascular ultrasonography detection of embolic sources in trauma.

Venous thromboembolism (deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism) and bone cement implantation syndrome are major sources of embolic events in trauma patients. In these patients, embolic events due to venous thromboembolism and bone cement implantation syndrome have been detected with cardiac and vascular ultrasonography in the emergency setting, during the perioperative period, and in the intensive care unit. This article discusses the ultrasonography modalities and imaging findings of embolic events related to venous thromboembolism and bone cement implantation syndrome. The aim is to present a short review with exceptional illustrations that can enable physicians to identify sources of emboli in trauma patients with cardiovascular ultrasonography.