A comparative modeling study of the mitochondrial function of the proximal tubule and thick ascending limb cells in the rat kidney.

To reabsorb >99% of the glomerular filtrate, the metabolic demand of the kidney is high. Interestingly, renal blood flow distribution exhibits marked inhomogeneity, with typical tissue oxygen tension (Po2) of 50-60 mmHg in the well-perfused cortex and 10-20 mmHg in the inner medulla. Cellular fluid composition and acidity also varies substantially. To understand how different renal epithelial cells adapt to their local environment, we have developed and applied computational models of mitochondrial function of proximal convoluted tubule cell (baseline Po2 = 50 mmHg, cytoplasmic pH = 7.20) and medullary thick ascending limb (mTAL) cell (baseline Po2 = 10 mmHg, cytoplasmic pH = 6.85). The models predict key cellular quantities, including ATP generation, P/O (phosphate/oxygen) ratio, proton motive force, electrical potential gradient, oxygen consumption, the redox state of key electron carriers, and ATP consumption. Model simulations predict that close to their respective baseline conditions, the proximal tubule and mTAL mitochondria exhibit qualitatively similar behaviors. Nonetheless, because the mTAL mitochondrion has adapted to a much lower Po2, it can sustain a sufficiently high ATP production at Po2 as low as 4-5 mmHg, whereas the proximal tubule mitochondria would not. Also, because the mTAL cytosol is already acidic under baseline conditions, the proton motive force (pmf) exhibits higher sensitivity to further acidification. Among the different pathways that lead to oxidative phosphorylation impairment, the models predict that both the proximal tubule and mTAL mitochondria are most sensitive to reductions in Complex III activity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Tissue fluid composition varies substantially within the mammalian kidney. The renal cortex is well perfused and pH neutral, whereas some medullary regions are hypoxic and acidic. How do these environments affect the mitochondrial function of proximal convoluted tubule and medullary thick ascending limb cells, which reside in the cortex and medulla, respectively? This computational modeling study demonstrates that these mitochondria can adapt to their contrasting environments and exhibit different sensitivities to perturbations to local environments.

Predicting sex differences in the effects of diuretics in renal epithelial transport during angiotensin II-induced hypertension.

Chronic angiotensin II (ANG II) infusion is an experimental model that induces hypertension in rodents. The natriuresis, diuresis, and blood pressure responses differ between males and females. This is perhaps not unexpected, given the rodent kidney, which plays a key role in blood pressure regulation, exhibits marked sex differences. Under normotensive conditions, compared with males, the female rat nephron exhibits lower Na+/H+ exchanger 3 (NHE3) activity along the proximal tubule but higher Na+ transporter activities along the distal segments. ANG II infusion-induced hypertension induces a pressure natriuretic response that reduces NHE3 activity and shifts Na+ transport capacity downstream. The goals of this study were to apply a computational model of epithelial transport along a rat nephron 1) to understand how a 14-day ANG II infusion impacts segmental electrolyte transport in male and female rat nephrons and 2) to identify and explain any sex differences in the effects of loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics, and K+-sparing diuretics. Model simulations suggest that the NHE3 downregulation in the proximal tubule is a major contributor to natriuresis and diuresis in hypertension, with the effects stronger in males. All three diuretics are predicted to induce stronger natriuretic and diuretic effects under hypertension compared with normotension, with relative increases in sodium excretion higher in hypertensive females than in males. The stronger natriuretic responses can be explained by the downstream shift of Na+ transport load in hypertension and by the larger distal transport load in females, both of which limit the ability of the distal segments to further elevate their Na+ transport.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Sex differences in the prevalence of hypertension are found in human and animal models. The kidney, which regulates blood pressure, exhibits sex differences in morphology, hemodynamics, and membrane transporter distributions. This computational modeling study provides insights into how the sexually dimorphic responses to a 14-day angiotensin II infusion differentially impact segmental electrolyte transport in rats. Simulations of diuretic administration explain how the natriuretic and diuretic effects differ between normotension and hypertension and between the sexes.

Renal calcium and magnesium handling during pregnancy: modeling and analysis.

Pregnancy is associated with elevated demand of most nutrients, with many trace elements and minerals critical for the development of fetus. In particular, calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) are essential for cellular function, and their deficiency can lead to impaired fetal growth. A key contributor to the homeostasis of these ions is the kidney, which in a pregnant rat undergoes major changes in morphology, hemodynamics, and molecular structure. The goal of this study is to unravel the functional implications of these pregnancy-induced changes in renal handling of Ca2+ and Mg2+, two cations that are essential in a healthy pregnancy. To achieve that goal, we developed computational models of electrolyte and water transport along the nephrons of a rat in mid and late pregnancy. Model simulations reveal a substantial increase in the reabsorption of Mg2+ along the proximal tubules and thick ascending limbs. In contrast, the reabsorption of Ca2+ is increased in the proximal tubules but decreased in the thick ascending limbs, due to the lower transepithelial concentration gradient of Ca2+ along the latter. Despite the enhanced transport capacity, the marked increase in glomerular filtration rate results in elevated urinary excretions of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in pregnancy. Furthermore, we conducted simulations of hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia. We found that hypocalcemia lowers Ca2+ excretion substantially more than Mg2+ excretion, with this effect being more pronounced in virgin rats than in pregnant ones. Conversely, hypomagnesemia reduces the excretion of Mg2+ and Ca2+ to more similar degrees. These differences can be explained by the greater sensitivity of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) to Ca2+ compared with Mg2+.NEW & NOTEWORTHY A growing fetus' demands of minerals, notably calcium and magnesium, necessitate adaptations in pregnancy. In particular, the kidney undergoes major changes in morphology, hemodynamics, and molecular structure. This computational modeling study provides insights into how these pregnancy-induced renal adaptation impact calcium and magnesium transport along different nephron segments. Model simulations indicate that, despite the enhanced transport capacity, the marked increase in glomerular filtration rate results in elevated urinary excretions of calcium and magnesium in pregnancy.

A modeling analysis of whole body potassium regulation on a high-potassium diet: proximal tubule and tubuloglomerular feedback effects.

Potassium (K+) is an essential electrolyte that plays a key role in many physiological processes, including mineralcorticoid action, systemic blood-pressure regulation, and hormone secretion and action. Indeed, maintaining K+ balance is critical for normal cell function, as too high or too low K+ levels can have serious and potentially deadly health consequences. K+ homeostasis is achieved by an intricate balance between the intracellular and extracellular fluid as well as balance between K+ intake and excretion. This is achieved via the coordinated actions of regulatory mechanisms such as the gastrointestinal feedforward effect, insulin and aldosterone upregulation of Na+-K+-ATPase uptake, and hormone and electrolyte impacts on renal K+ handling. We recently developed a mathematical model of whole body K+ regulation to unravel the individual impacts of these regulatory mechanisms. In this study, we extend our mathematical model to incorporate recent experimental findings that showed decreased fractional proximal tubule reabsorption under a high-K+ diet. We conducted model simulations and sensitivity analyses to investigate how these renal alterations impact whole body K+ regulation. Model predictions quantify the sensitivity of K+ regulation to various levels of proximal tubule K+ reabsorption adaptation and tubuloglomerular feedback. Our results suggest that the reduced proximal tubule K+ reabsorption under a high-K+ diet could achieve K+ balance in isolation, but the resulting tubuloglomerular feedback reduces filtration rate and thus K+ excretion.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Potassium homeostasis is maintained in the body by a complex system of regulatory mechanisms. This system, when healthy, maintains a small extracellular potassium concentration, despite large fluctuations of dietary potassium. The complexities of the system make this problem well suited for investigation with mathematical modeling. In this study, we extend our mathematical model to consider recent experimental results on renal potassium handling on a high potassium diet and investigate the impacts from a whole body perspective.

Sexual Dimorphism in Substrate Metabolism During Exercise.

During aerobic exercise, women oxidize significantly more lipids and less carbohydrates than men. This sexual dimorphism in substrate metabolism has been attributed, in part, to the observed differences in epinephrine and glucagon levels between men and women during exercise. To identify the underpinning candidate physiological mechanisms for these sex differences, we developed a sex-specific multi-scale mathematical model that relates cellular metabolism in the organs to whole-body responses during exercise. We conducted simulations to test the hypothesis that sex differences in the exercise-induced changes to epinephrine and glucagon would result in the sexual dimorphism of hepatic metabolic flux rates via the glucagon-to-insulin ratio (GIR). Indeed, model simulations indicate that the shift towards lipid metabolism in the female model is primarily driven by the liver. The female model liver exhibits resistance to GIR-mediated glycogenolysis, which helps maintain hepatic glycogen levels. This decreases arterial glucose levels and promotes the oxidation of free fatty acids. Furthermore, in the female model, skeletal muscle relies on plasma free fatty acids as the primary fuel source, rather than intramyocellular lipids, whereas the opposite holds true for the male model.

"Hi, how can i help you?": embracing artificial intelligence in kidney research.

In recent years, biology and precision medicine have benefited from major advancements in generating large-scale molecular and biomedical datasets and in analyzing those data using advanced machine learning algorithms. Machine learning applications in kidney physiology and pathophysiology include segmenting kidney structures from imaging data and predicting conditions like acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease using electronic health records. Despite the potential of machine learning to revolutionize nephrology by providing innovative diagnostic and therapeutic tools, its adoption in kidney research has been slower than in other organ systems. Several factors contribute to this underutilization. The complexity of the kidney as an organ, with intricate physiology and specialized cell populations, makes it challenging to extrapolate bulk omics data to specific processes. In addition, kidney diseases often present with overlapping manifestations and morphological changes, making diagnosis and treatment complex. Moreover, kidney diseases receive less funding compared with other pathologies, leading to lower awareness and limited public-private partnerships. To promote the use of machine learning in kidney research, this review provides an introduction to machine learning and reviews its notable applications in renal research, such as morphological analysis, omics data examination, and disease diagnosis and prognosis. Challenges and limitations associated with data-driven predictive techniques are also discussed. The goal of this review is to raise awareness and encourage the kidney research community to embrace machine learning as a powerful tool that can drive advancements in understanding kidney diseases and improving patient care.

Influence of administration time and sex on natriuretic, diuretic, and kaliuretic effects of diuretics.

Sex differences in renal function and blood pressure have been widely described across many species. Blood pressure dips during sleep and peaks in the early morning. Similarly, glomerular filtration rate, filtered electrolyte loads, urine volume, and urinary excretion all exhibit notable diurnal rhythms, which reflect, in part, the regulation of renal transporter proteins by circadian clock genes. That regulation is sexually dimorphic; as such, sex and time of day are not two independent regulators of kidney function and blood pressure. The objective of the present study was to assess the effect of sex and administration time on the natriuretic and diuretic effects of loop, thiazide, and K+-sparing diuretics, which are common treatments for hypertension. Loop diuretics inhibit Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporters on the apical membrane of the thick ascending limb, thiazide diuretics inhibit Na+-Cl- cotransporters on the distal convoluted tubule, and K+-sparing diuretics inhibit epithelial Na+ channels on the connecting tubule and collecting duct. We simulated Na+ transporter inhibition using sex- and time-of-day-specific computational models of mouse kidney function. The simulation results highlighted significant sex and time-of-day differences in the drug response. Loop diuretics induced larger natriuretic and diuretic effects during the active phase. The natriuretic and diuretic effects of thiazide diuretics exhibited sex and time-of-day differences, whereas these effects of K+-sparing diuretics exhibited a significant time-of-day difference in females only. The kaliuretic effect depended on the type of diuretics and time of administration. The present computational models can be a useful tool in chronotherapy, to tailor drug administration time to match the body's diurnal rhythms to optimize the drug effect.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Sex influences cardiovascular disease, and the timing of onset of acute cardiovascular events exhibits circadian rhythms. Kidney function also exhibits sex differences and circadian rhythms. How do the natriuretic and diuretic effects of diuretics, a common treatment for hypertension that targets the kidneys, differ between the sexes? And how do these effects vary during the day? To answer these questions, we conducted computer simulations to assess the effects of loop, thiazide, and K+-sparing diuretics.

Coupling of renal sodium and calcium transport: a modeling analysis of transporter inhibition and sex differences.

Ca2+ transport along the nephron occurs via specific transcellular and paracellular pathways and is coupled to the transport of other electrolytes. Notably, Na+ transport establishes an electrochemical gradient to drive Ca2+ reabsorption. Hence, alterations in renal Na+ handling, under pathophysiological conditions or pharmacological manipulations, can have major effects on Ca2+ transport. An important class of pharmacological agent is diuretics, which are commonly prescribed for the management of blood pressure and fluid balance. The pharmacological targets of diuretics generally directly facilitate Na+ transport but also indirectly affect renal Ca2+ handling. To better understand the underlying mechanisms, we developed a computational model of electrolyte transport along the superficial nephron in the kidney of a male and female rat. Sex differences in renal Ca2+ handling are represented. Model simulations predicted in the female rat nephron lower Ca2+ reabsorption in the proximal tubule and thick ascending limb, but higher reabsorption in the late distal convoluted tubule and connecting tubule, compared with the male nephron. The male rat kidney model yielded a higher urinary Ca2+ excretion than the female model, consistent with animal experiments. Model results indicated that along the proximal tubule and thick ascending limb, Ca2+ and Na+ transport occurred in parallel, but those processes were dissociated in the distal convoluted tubule. Additionally, we conducted simulations of inhibition of channels and transporters that play a major role in Na+ and Ca2+ transport. Simulation results revealed alterations in transepithelial Ca2+ transport, with differential effects among nephron segments and between the sexes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The kidney plays an important role in the maintenance of whole body Ca2+ balance by regulating Ca2+ reabsorption and excretion. This computational modeling study provides insights into how Ca2+ transport along the nephron is coupled to Na+. Model results indicated that along the proximal tubule and thick ascending limb, Ca2+ and Na+ transport occur in parallel, but those processes were dissociated in the distal convoluted tubule. Simulations also revealed sex-specific responses to different pharmacological manipulations.

Sex differences in renal electrolyte transport.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Women experience unique life events, for example, pregnancy and lactation, that challenge renal regulation of electrolyte homeostasis. Recent analyses of nephron organization in female vs. male rodent kidneys, revealed distinct sexual dimorphisms in electrolyte transporter expression, abundance, and activity. This review aims to provide an overview of electrolyte transporters' organization and operation in female compared with the commonly studied male kidney, and the (patho)physiologic consequences of the differences. RECENT FINDINGS: When electrolyte transporters are assessed in kidney protein homogenates from both sexes, relative transporter abundance ratios in females/males are less than one along proximal tubule and greater than one post macula densa, which is indicative of a 'downstream shift' in fractional reabsorption of electrolytes in females. This arrangement improves the excretion of a sodium load, challenges potassium homeostasis, and is consistent with the lower blood pressure and greater pressure natriuresis observed in premenopausal women. SUMMARY: We summarize recently reported new knowledge about sex differences in renal transporters: abundance and expression along nephron, implications for regulation by Na + , K + and angiotensin II, and mathematical models of female nephron function.

Mathematical modeling of calcium homeostasis in female rats: An analysis of sex differences and maternal adaptations.

Calcium plays a vital role in various biological processes, including muscle contractions, blood clotting, skeletal mineralization, and cell signaling. While extracellular calcium makes up less than 1% of total body calcium, it is tightly regulated since too high or too low extracellular calcium concentration can have dangerous effects on the body. Mathematical modeling is a well-suited approach to investigate the complex physiological processes involved in calcium regulation. While mathematical models have been developed to study calcium homeostasis in male rats, none have been used to investigate known sex differences in hormone levels nor the unique physiological states of pregnancy and lactation. Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, plays a key role in intestinal calcium absorption, renal calcium reabsorption, and bone remodeling. It has been shown that, when compared to age-matched male rats, females have significantly lower calcitriol levels. In this study we first seek to investigate the impact of this difference as well as other known sex differences on calcium homeostasis using mathematical modeling. Female bodies differ from male bodies in that during their lifetime they may undergo massive adaptations during pregnancy and lactation. Indeed, maternal adaptations impact calcium regulation in all mammals. In pregnant rodents, intestinal absorption of calcium is massively increased in the mother's body to meet the needs of the developing fetus. In a lactating rodent, much of the calcium needs of milk are met by bone resorption, intestinal absorption, and renal calcium reabsorption. Given these observations, the goal of this project is to develop multi-scale whole-body models of calcium homeostasis that represents (1) how sex differences impact calcium homeostasis in female vs. male rats and (2) how a female body adapts to support the excess demands brought on by pregnancy and lactation. We used these models to quantify the impact of individual sex differences as well as maternal adaptations during pregnancy and lactation. Additionally, we conducted "what if" simulations to test whether sex differences in calcium regulation may enable females to better undergo maternal adaptations required in pregnancy and lactation than males.

A mathematical model of potassium homeostasis: Effect of feedforward and feedback controls.

Maintaining normal potassium (K+) concentrations in the extra- and intracellular fluid is critical for cell function. K+ homeostasis is achieved by ensuring proper distribution between extra- and intracellular fluid compartments and by matching K+ excretion with intake. The Na+-K+-ATPase pump facilitates K+ uptake into the skeletal muscle, where most K+ is stored. Na+-K+-ATPase activity is stimulated by insulin and aldosterone. The kidneys regulate long term K+ homeostasis by controlling the amount of K+ excreted through urine. Renal handling of K+ is mediated by a number of regulatory mechanisms, including an aldosterone-mediated feedback control, in which high extracellular K+ concentration stimulates aldosterone secretion, which enhances urine K+ excretion, and a gastrointestinal feedforward control mechanism, in which dietary K+ intake increases K+ excretion. Recently, a muscle-kidney cross talk signal has been hypothesized, where the K+ concentration in skeletal muscle cells directly affects urine K+ excretion without changes in extracellular K+ concentration. To understand how these mechanisms coordinate under different K+ challenges, we have developed a compartmental model of whole-body K+ regulation. The model represents the intra- and extracellular fluid compartments in a human (male) as well as a detailed kidney compartment. We included (i) the gastrointestinal feedforward control mechanism, (ii) the effect of insulin and (iii) aldosterone on Na+-K+-ATPase K+ uptake, and (iv) aldosterone stimulation of renal K+ secretion. We used this model to investigate the impact of regulatory mechanisms on K+ homeostasis. Model predictions showed how the regulatory mechanisms synthesize to ensure that the extra- and intracelluller fluid K+ concentrations remain in normal range in times of K+ loading and fasting. Additionally, we predict that without the hypothesized muscle-kidney cross talk signal, the model was unable to predict a return to normal extracellular K+ concentration after a period of high K+ loading or depletion.

Sex differences in circadian regulation of kidney function of the mouse.

Kidney function is regulated by the circadian clock. Not only do glomerular filtration rate and urinary excretion oscillate during the day, but the expressions of several renal transporter proteins also exhibit circadian rhythms. Interestingly, the circadian regulation of these transporters appears to be sexually dimorphic. Thus, the goal of the present study was to investigate the mechanisms by which the kidney function of the mouse is modulated by sex and time of day. To accomplish this, we developed the first computational models of epithelial water and solute transport along the mouse nephrons that represent the effects of sex and the circadian clock on renal hemodynamics and transporter activity. We conducted simulations to study how the circadian control of renal transport genes affects overall kidney function and how that process differs between male and female mice. Simulation results predicted that tubular transport differs substantially among segments, with relative variations in water and Na+ reabsorption along the proximal tubules and thick ascending limb tracking that of glomerular filtration rate. In contrast, relative variations in distal segment transport were much larger, with Na+ reabsorption almost doubling during the active phase. Oscillations in Na+ transport drive K+ transport variations in the opposite direction. Model simulations of basic helix-loop-helix ARNT like 1 (BMAL1) knockout mice predicted a significant reduction in net Na+ reabsorption along the distal segments in both sexes, but more so in males than in females. This can be attributed to the reduction of mean epithelial Na+ channel activity in males only, a sex-specific effect that may lead to a reduction in blood pressure in BMAL1-null males.NEW & NOTEWORTHY How does the circadian control of renal transport genes affect overall kidney function, and how does that process differ between male and female mice? How does the differential circadian regulation of the expression levels of key transporter genes impact the transport processes along different nephron segments during the day? And how do those effects differ between males and females? We built computational models of mouse kidney function to answer these questions.

Adaptive changes in single-nephron GFR, tubular morphology, and transport in a pregnant rat nephron: modeling and analysis.

Normal pregnancy is characterized by massive increases in plasma volume and electrolyte retention. Given that the kidneys regulate homeostasis of electrolytes and volume, the organ undergoes major adaptations in morphology, hemodynamics, and transport to achieve the volume and electrolyte retention required in pregnancy. These adaptations are complex, sometimes counterintuitive, and not fully understood. In addition, the demands of the developing fetus and placenta change throughout pregnancy. For example, during late pregnancy, K+ retention and thus enhanced renal K+ reabsorption are required despite many kaliuretic factors. The goal of this study was to unravel how known adaptive changes along the nephrons contribute to the ability of the kidney to meet volume and electrolyte requirements in mid and late pregnancy. We developed computational models of solute and water transport in the superficial nephron of the kidney of a rat in mid and late pregnancy. The midpregnant and late-pregnant rat superficial nephron models predicted that morphological adaptations and increased activity of Na+/H+ exchanger 3 (NHE3) and epithelial Na+ channel are essential for the enhanced Na+ reabsorption observed during pregnancy. Model simulations showed that for sufficient K+ reabsorption, increased activity of H+-K+-ATPase and decreased K+ secretion along the distal segments is required in both mid and late pregnancy. The model results also suggested that certain known sex differences in renal transporter pattern (e.g., the higher NHE3 protein abundance but lower activity in the proximal tubules of virgin female rats compared with male rats) may serve to better prepare females for the increased transport demand in pregnancy.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Normal pregnancy in mammals is generally characterized by massive changes in plasma volume and electrolyte retention. This study provides insights into how the volume and electrolyte requirement in different pregnancy stages are met by coordinated adaptive changes in the kidney. The model results also suggested that certain known sex differences in the renal transporter pattern may serve to better prepare females for the increased transport demand in pregnancy.

The mixed blessing of AMPK signaling in Cancer treatments.

BACKGROUND: Nutrient acquisition and metabolism pathways are altered in cancer cells to meet bioenergetic and biosynthetic demands. A major regulator of cellular metabolism and energy homeostasis, in normal and cancer cells, is AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK influences cell growth via its modulation of the mechanistic target of Rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, specifically, by inhibiting mTOR complex mTORC1, which facilitates cell proliferation, and by activating mTORC2 and cell survival. Given its conflicting roles, the effects of AMPK activation in cancer can be counter intuitive. Prior to the establishment of cancer, AMPK acts as a tumor suppressor. However, following the onset of cancer, AMPK has been shown to either suppress or promote cancer, depending on cell type or state. METHODS: To unravel the controversial roles of AMPK in cancer, we developed a computational model to simulate the effects of pharmacological maneuvers that target key metabolic signalling nodes, with a specific focus on AMPK, mTORC, and their modulators. Specifically, we constructed an ordinary differential equation-based mechanistic model of AMPK-mTORC signaling, and parametrized the model based on existing experimental data. RESULTS: Model simulations were conducted to yield the following predictions: (i) increasing AMPK activity has opposite effects on mTORC depending on the nutrient availability; (ii) indirect inhibition of AMPK activity through inhibition of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) only has an effect on mTORC activity under conditions of low nutrient availability; (iii) the balance between cell proliferation and survival exhibits an intricate dependence on DEP domain-containing mTOR-interacting protein (DEPTOR) abundance and AMPK activity; (iv) simultaneous direct inhibition of mTORC2 and activation of AMPK is a potential strategy for suppressing both cell survival and proliferation. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, model simulations clarify the competing effects and the roles of key metabolic signalling pathways in tumorigenesis, which may yield insights on innovative therapeutic strategies.

Modeling the circadian regulation of the immune system: Sexually dimorphic effects of shift work.

The circadian clock exerts significance influence on the immune system and disruption of circadian rhythms has been linked to inflammatory pathologies. Shift workers often experience circadian misalignment as their irregular work schedules disrupt the natural light-dark cycle, which in turn can cause serious health problems associated with alterations in genetic expressions of clock genes. In particular, shift work is associated with impairment in immune function, and those alterations are sex-specific. The goal of this study is to better understand the mechanisms that explain the weakened immune system in shift workers. To achieve that goal, we have constructed a mathematical model of the mammalian pulmonary circadian clock coupled to an acute inflammation model in the male and female rats. Shift work was simulated by an 8h-phase advance of the circadian system with sex-specific modulation of clock genes. The model reproduces the clock gene expression in the lung and the immune response to various doses of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Under normal conditions, our model predicts that a host is more sensitive to LPS at circadian time (CT) CT12 versus CT0 due to a dynamic change of Interleukin 10 (IL-10), an anti-inflammatory cytokine. We identify REV-ERB as a key modulator of IL-10 activity throughout the circadian day. The model also predicts a reversal of the times of lowest and highest sensitivity to LPS, with males and females exhibiting an exaggerated response to LPS at CT0, which is countered by a blunted immune response at CT12. Overall, females produce fewer pro-inflammatory cytokines than males, but the extent of sequelae experienced by males and females varies across the circadian day. This model can serve as an essential component in an integrative model that will yield mechanistic understanding of how shift work-mediated circadian disruptions affect the inflammatory and other physiological responses.

Interactions among mTORC, AMPK and SIRT: a computational model for cell energy balance and metabolism.

BACKGROUND: Cells adapt their metabolism and activities in response to signals from their surroundings, and this ability is essential for their survival in the face of perturbations. In tissues a deficit of these mechanisms is commonly associated with cellular aging and diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, immune system decline, and neurological pathologies. Several proteins have been identified as being able to respond directly to energy, nutrient, and growth factor levels and stress stimuli in order to mediate adaptations in the cell. In particular, mTOR, AMPK, and sirtuins are known to play an essential role in the management of metabolic stress and energy balance in mammals. METHODS: To understand the complex interactions of these signalling pathways and environmental signals, and how those interactions may impact lifespan and health-span, we have developed a computational model of metabolic signalling pathways. Specifically, the model includes (i) the insulin/IGF-1 pathway, which couples energy and nutrient abundance to the execution of cell growth and division, (ii) mTORC1 and the amino acid sensors such as sestrin, (iii) the Preiss-Handler and salvage pathways, which regulate the metabolism of NAD+ and the NAD+ -consuming factor SIRT1, (iv) the energy sensor AMPK, and (v) transcription factors FOXO and PGC-1α. RESULTS: The model simulates the interactions among key regulators such as AKT, mTORC1, AMPK, NAD+ , and SIRT, and predicts their dynamics. Key findings include the clinically important role of PRAS40 and diet in mTORC1 inhibition, and a potential link between SIRT1-activating compounds and premature autophagy. Moreover, the model captures the exquisite interactions of leucine, sestrin2, and arginine, and the resulting signal to the mTORC1 pathway. These results can be leveraged in the development of novel treatment of cancers and other diseases. CONCLUSIONS: This study presents a state-of-the-art computational model for investigating the interactions among signaling pathways and environmental stimuli in growth, ageing, metabolism, and diseases. The model can be used as an essential component to simulate gene manipulation, therapies (e.g., rapamycin and wortmannin), calorie restrictions, and chronic stress, and assess their functional implications on longevity and ageing-related diseases. Video Abstract.

Use of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Modeling Analysis.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARB) are frequently prescribed for a range of diseases including hypertension, proteinuric chronic kidney disease, and heart failure. There is evidence indicating that these drugs upregulate ACE2, a key component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and is found on the cells of a number of tissues, including the epithelial cells in the lungs. While ACE2 has a beneficial role in many diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, it also serves as a receptor for both SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 via binding with the spike protein of the virus, thereby allowing it entry into host cells. Thus, it has been suggested that these therapies can theoretically increase the risk of SARS- CoV-2 infection and cause more severe COVID-19. Given the success of ACEi and ARBs in cardiovascular diseases, we seek to gain insights into the implications of these medications in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. To that end, we have developed a mathematical model that represents the RAS, binding of ACE2 with SARS-CoV-2 and the subsequent cell entry, and the host's acute inflammatory response. The model can simulate different levels of SARS-CoV-2 exposure, and represent the effect of commonly prescribed anti-hypertensive medications, ACEi and ARB, and predict tissue damage. Model simulations indicate that whether the extent of tissue damage may be exacerbated by ACEi or ARB treatment depends on a number of factors, including the level of existing inflammation, dosage, and the effect of the drugs on ACE2 protein abundance. The findings of this study can serve as the first step in the development of appropriate and more comprehensive guidelines for the prescription of ACEi and ARB in the current and future coronavirus pandemics.

Sex-specific computational models for blood pressure regulation in the rat.

In the past decades, substantial effort has been devoted to the development of computational models of the cardiovascular system. Some of these models simulate blood pressure regulation in humans and include components of the circulatory, renal, and neurohormonal systems. Although such human models are intended to have clinical value in that they can be used to assess the effects and reveal mechanisms of hypertensive therapeutic treatments, rodent models would be more useful in assisting the interpretation of animal experiments. Also, despite well-known sexual dimorphism in blood pressure regulation, almost all published models are gender neutral. Given these observations, the goal of this project is to develop the first computational models of blood pressure regulation for male and female rats. The resulting sex-specific models represent the interplay among cardiovascular function, renal hemodynamics, and kidney function in the rat; they also include the actions of the renal sympathetic nerve activity and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system as well as physiological sex differences. We explore mechanisms responsible for blood pressure and renal autoregulation and notable sexual dimorphism. Model simulations suggest that fluid and sodium handling in the kidney of female rats, which differs significantly from males, may contribute to their observed lower salt sensitivity as compared with males. Additionally, model simulations highlight sodium handling in the kidney and renal sympathetic nerve activity sensitivity as key players in the increased resistance of females to angiotensin II-induced hypertension as compared with males.

Sex differences in solute transport along the nephrons: effects of Na+ transport inhibition.

Each day, ~1.7 kg of NaCl and 180 liters of water are reabsorbed by nephron segments in humans, with urinary excretion fine tuned to meet homeostatic requirements. These tasks are coordinated by a spectrum of renal Na+ transporters and channels. The goal of the present study was to investigate the extent to which inhibitors of transepithelial Na+ transport (TNa) along the nephron alter urinary solute excretion and how those effects may vary between male and female subjects. To accomplish that goal, we developed sex-specific multinephron models that represent detailed transcellular and paracellular transport processes along the nephrons of male and female rat kidneys. We simulated inhibition of Na+/H+ exchanger 3 (NHE3), bumetanide-sensitive Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter (NKCC2), Na+-Cl- cotransporter (NCC), and amiloride-sensitive epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC). NHE3 inhibition simulations predicted a substantially reduced proximal tubule TNa, and NKCC2 inhibition substantially reduced thick ascending limb TNa. Both gave rise to diuresis, natriuresis, and kaliuresis, with those effects stronger in female rats. While NCC inhibition was predicted to have only minor impact on renal TNa, it nonetheless had a notable effect of enhancing excretion of Na+, K+, and Cl-, particularly in female rats. Inhibition of ENaC was predicted to have opposite effects on the excretion of Na+ (increased) and K+ (decreased) and to have only a minor impact on whole kidney TNa. Unlike inhibition of other transporters, ENaC inhibition induced stronger natriuresis and diuresis in male rats than female rats. Overall, model predictions agreed well with measured changes in Na+ and K+ excretion in response to diuretics and Na+ transporter mutations.

A model of mitochondrial O2 consumption and ATP generation in rat proximal tubule cells.

Oxygen tension in the kidney is mostly determined by O2 consumption (Qo2), which is, in turn, closely linked to tubular Na+ reabsorption. The objective of the present study was to develop a model of mitochondrial function in the proximal tubule (PT) cells of the rat renal cortex to gain more insight into the coupling between Qo2, ATP formation (GATP), ATP hydrolysis (QATP), and Na+ transport in the PT. The present model correctly predicts in vitro and in vivo measurements of Qo2, GATP, and ATP and Pi concentrations in PT cells. Our simulations suggest that O2 levels are not rate limiting in the proximal convoluted tubule, absent large metabolic perturbations. The model predicts that the rate of ATP hydrolysis and cytoplasmic pH each substantially regulate the GATP-to-Qo2 ratio, a key determinant of the number of Na+ moles actively reabsorbed per mole of O2 consumed. An isolated increase in QATP or in cytoplasmic pH raises the GATP-to-Qo2 ratio. Thus, variations in Na+ reabsorption and pH along the PT may, per se, generate axial heterogeneities in the efficiency of mitochondrial metabolism and Na+ transport. Our results also indicate that the GATP-to-Qo2 ratio is strongly impacted not only by H+ leak permeability, which reflects mitochondrial uncoupling, but also by K+ leak pathways. Simulations suggest that the negative impact of increased uncoupling in the diabetic kidney on mitochondrial metabolic efficiency is partly counterbalanced by increased rates of Na+ transport and ATP consumption. This model provides a framework to investigate the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in acute and chronic renal diseases.