Fatty acid epoxyisoprostane E2 stimulates an oxidative stress response in endothelial cells.

Atherosclerosis is the main underlying cause of major cardiovascular diseases such as stroke and heart attack. Oxidized phospholipids such as oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-Glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (OxPAPC) accumulate in lesions of and promote atherosclerosis. OxPAPC activates endothelial cells, a critical early event of atherogenesis. Epoxyisoprostane E2 (EI) is an oxidized fatty acid contained at the sn-2 position of 1-palmitoyl-2-epoxyisoprostane E2-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (PEIPC), the most active component of OxPAPC in regulating inflammation. OxPAPC and its components including PEIPC activate endothelial cells to express an array of genes in different categories including oxidative stress response genes such as tumor suppressor gene OKL38 and Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). EI can be released by lipase from PEIPC. In this study, we examined the ability of EI to stimulate oxidative stress response in endothelial cells. EI released from OxPAPC and synthetic EI stimulated the expression of oxidative stress response gene OKL38 and antioxidant gene HO-1. Treatment of endothelial cells with EI increased the production of superoxide. NADPH oxidase inhibitor Apocynin and superoxide scavenger N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) significantly attenuated EI-stimulated expression of OKL38 and HO-1. We further demonstrated that EI activated oxidative stress-sensitive transcription factor Nrf2. Silencing of Nrf2 with siRNA significantly reduced EI stimulated expression of OKL38 and HO-1. Thus, we demonstrated that EI induced oxidative stress in endothelial cells leading to increased expression of oxidative stress response gene OKL38 and HO-1 via Nrf2 signaling pathway relevant to atherosclerosis.

Role of phospholipid oxidation products in atherosclerosis.

There is increasing clinical evidence that phospholipid oxidation products (Ox-PL) play a role in atherosclerosis. This review focuses on the mechanisms by which Ox-PL interact with endothelial cells, monocyte/macrophages, platelets, smooth muscle cells, and HDL to promote atherogenesis. In the past few years major progress has been made in identifying these mechanisms. It has been recognized that Ox-PL promote phenotypic changes in these cell types that have long-term consequences for the vessel wall. Individual Ox-PL responsible for specific cellular effects have been identified. A model of the configuration of bioactive truncated Ox-PL within membranes has been developed that demonstrates that the oxidized fatty acid moiety protrudes into the aqueous phase, rendering it accessible for receptor recognition. Receptors and signaling pathways for individual Ox-PL species are now determined and receptor independent signaling pathways identified. The effects of Ox-PL are mediated both by gene regulation and transcription independent processes. It has now become apparent that Ox-PL affects multiple genes and pathways, some of which are proatherogenic and some are protective. However, at concentrations that are likely present in the vessel wall in atherosclerotic lesions, the effects promote atherogenesis. There have also been new insights on enzymes that metabolize Ox-PL and the significance of these enzymes for atherosclerosis. With the knowledge we now have of the regulation and effects of Ox-PL in different vascular cell types, it should be possible to design experiments to test the role of specific Ox-PL on the development of atherosclerosis.

Platelet-derived thrombospondin 1 promotes immune cell liver infiltration and exacerbates diet-induced steatohepatitis.

Background & Aims: Recent studies have implicated platelets, particularly α-granules, in the development of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). However, the specific mechanisms involved have yet to be determined. Notably, thrombospondin 1 (TSP1) is a major component of the platelet α-granules released during platelet activation. Hence, we aimed to determine the role of platelet-derived TSP1 in NASH. Methods: Platelet-specific Tsp1 knockout mice (TSP1Δpf4) and their wild-type littermates (TSP1F/F) were used. NASH was induced by feeding the mice with a diet enriched in fat, sucrose, fructose, and cholesterol (AMLN diet). A human liver NASH organoid model was also employed. Results: Although TSP1 deletion in platelets did not affect diet-induced steatosis, TSP1Δpf4 mice exhibited attenuated NASH and liver fibrosis, accompanied by improvements in plasma glucose and lipid homeostasis. Furthermore, TSP1Δpf4 mice showed reduced intrahepatic platelet accumulation, activation, and chemokine production, correlating with decreased immune cell infiltration into the liver. Consequently, this diminished proinflammatory signaling in the liver, thereby mitigating the progression of NAFLD. Moreover, in vitro data revealed that co-culturing TSP1-deficient platelets in a human liver NASH organoid model attenuated hepatic stellate cell activation and NASH progression. Additionally, TSP1-deficient platelets play a role in regulating brown fat endocrine function, specifically affecting Nrg4 (neuregulin 4) production. Crosstalk between brown fat and the liver may also influence the progression of NAFLD. Conclusions: These data suggest that platelet α-granule-derived TSP1 is a significant contributor to diet-induced NASH and fibrosis, potentially serving as a new therapeutic target for this severe liver disease. Impact and implications: Recent studies have implicated platelets, specifically α-granules, in the development of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, yet the precise mechanisms remain unknown. In this study, through the utilization of a tissue-specific knockout mouse model and human 3D liver organoid, we demonstrated that platelet α-granule-derived TSP1 significantly contributes to diet-induced non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and fibrosis. This contribution is, in part, attributed to the regulation of intrahepatic immune cell infiltration and potential crosstalk between fat and the liver. These findings suggest that platelet-derived TSP1 may represent a novel therapeutic target in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Systems genetics analysis of gene-by-environment interactions in human cells.

Gene by environment (GxE) interactions are clearly important in many human diseases, but they have proven to be difficult to study on a molecular level. We report genetic analysis of thousands of transcript abundance traits in human primary endothelial cell (EC) lines in response to proinflammatory oxidized phospholipids implicated in cardiovascular disease. Of the 59 most regulated transcripts, approximately one-third showed evidence of GxE interactions. The interactions resulted primarily from effects of distal-, trans-acting loci, but a striking example of a local-GxE interaction was also observed for FGD6. Some of the distal interactions were validated by siRNA knockdown experiments, including a locus involved in the regulation of multiple transcripts involved in the ER stress pathway. Our findings add to the understanding of the overall architecture of complex human traits and are consistent with the possibility that GxE interactions are responsible, in part, for the failure of association studies to more fully explain common disease variation.

Network for activation of human endothelial cells by oxidized phospholipids: a critical role of heme oxygenase 1.

RATIONALE: Oxidized palmitoyl arachidonyl phosphatidylcholine (Ox-PAPC) accumulates in atherosclerotic lesions, is proatherogenic, and influences the expression of more than 1000 genes in endothelial cells. OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the major pathways involved in Ox-PAPC action, we conducted a systems analysis of endothelial cell gene expression after exposure to Ox-PAPC. METHODS AND RESULTS: We used the variable responses of primary endothelial cells from 149 individuals exposed to Ox-PAPC to construct a network that consisted of 11 groups of genes, or modules. Modules were enriched for a broad range of Gene Ontology pathways, some of which have not been identified previously as major Ox-PAPC targets. Further validating our method of network construction, modules were consistent with relationships established by cell biology studies of Ox-PAPC effects on endothelial cells. This network provides novel hypotheses about molecular interactions, as well as candidate molecular regulators of inflammation and atherosclerosis. We validated several hypotheses based on network connections and genomic association. Our network analysis predicted that the hub gene CHAC1 (cation transport regulator homolog 1) was regulated by the ATF4 (activating transcription factor 4) arm of the unfolded protein response pathway, and here we showed that ATF4 directly activates an element in the CHAC1 promoter. We showed that variation in basal levels of heme oxygenase 1 (HMOX1) contribute to the response to Ox-PAPC, consistent with its position as a hub in our network. We also identified G-protein-coupled receptor 39 (GPR39) as a regulator of HMOX1 levels and showed that it modulates the promoter activity of HMOX1. We further showed that OKL38/OSGN1 (oxidative stress-induced growth inhibitor), the hub gene in the blue module, is a key regulator of both inflammatory and antiinflammatory molecules. CONCLUSIONS: Our systems genetics approach has provided a broad view of the pathways involved in the response of endothelial cells to Ox-PAPC and also identified novel regulatory mechanisms.

Metalloproteinase processing of HBEGF is a proximal event in the response of human aortic endothelial cells to oxidized phospholipids.

OBJECTIVE: Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease initiated by monocyte recruitment and retention in the vessel wall. An important mediator of monocyte endothelial interaction is the chemokine interleukin (IL)-8. The oxidation products of phospholipids, including oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine (Ox-PAPC), accumulate in atherosclerotic lesions and strongly induce IL-8 in human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs). The goal of this study was to identify the proximal events leading to induction of IL-8 by Ox-PAPC in vascular endothelial cells. METHODS AND RESULTS: In a systems genetics analysis of HAECs isolated from 96 different human donors, we showed that heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HBEGF) transcript levels are strongly correlated to IL-8 induction by Ox-PAPC. The silencing and overexpression of HBEGF in HAECs confirmed the role of HBEGF in regulating IL-8 expression. HBEGF has been shown to be stored in an inactive form and activation is dependent on processing by a dysintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAM) to a form that can activate the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor. Ox-PAPC was shown to rapidly induce HBEGF processing and EGF receptor activation in HAECs. Using siRNA we identified 3 ADAMs that regulate IL-8 induction and directly demonstrated that Ox-PAPC increases ADAM activity in the cells using a substrate cleavage assay. We provide evidence for one mechanism of Ox-PAPC activation of ADAM involving covalent binding of Ox-PAPC to cysteine on ADAM. Free thiol cysteine analogs showed inhibition of IL-8 induction by Ox-PAPC, and both a cysteine analog and a cell surface thiol blocker strongly inhibited ADAM activity induction by Ox-PAPC. Using microarray analyses, we determined that this ADAM pathway may regulate at least 30% of genes induced by Ox-PAPC in HAECs. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first report demonstrating a role for the ADAM-HBEGF-EGF receptor axis in Ox-PAPC induction of IL-8 in HAECs. These studies highlight a role for specific ADAMs as initiators of Ox-PAPC action and provide evidence for a role of covalent interaction of Ox-PAPC in activation of ADAMs.

Reduced sphingolipid biosynthesis modulates proteostasis networks to enhance longevity.

As the elderly population increases, chronic, age-associated diseases are challenging healthcare systems around the world. Nutrient limitation is well known to slow the aging process and improve health. Regrettably, practicing nutrient restriction to improve health is unachievable for most people. Alternatively, pharmacological strategies are being pursued including myriocin which increases lifespan in budding yeast. Myriocin impairs sphingolipid synthesis, resulting in lowered amino acid pools which promote entry into a quiescent, long-lived state. Here we present transcriptomic data during the first 6 hours of drug treatment that improves our mechanistic understanding of the cellular response to myriocin and reveals a new role for ubiquitin in longevity. Previously we found that the methionine transporter Mup1 traffics to the plasma membrane normally in myriocin-treated cells but is not active and undergoes endocytic clearance. We now show that UBI4, a gene encoding stressed-induced ubiquitin, is vital for myriocin-enhanced lifespan. Furthermore, we show that Mup1 fused to a deubiquitinase domain impairs myriocin-enhanced longevity. Broader effects of myriocin treatment on ubiquitination are indicated by our finding of a significant increase in K63-linked ubiquitin polymers following myriocin treatment. Although proteostasis is broadly accepted as a pillar of aging, our finding that ubiquitination of an amino acid transporter promotes longevity in myriocin-treated cells is novel. Addressing the role of ubiquitination/deubiquitination in longevity has the potential to reveal new strategies and targets for promoting healthy aging.

Deconvolution reveals cell-type-specific transcriptomic changes in the aging mouse brain.

Mounting evidence highlights the crucial role of aging in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have previously explored human apoE-targeted replacement mice across different ages and identified distinct molecular pathways driven by aging. However, the specific contribution of different brain cell types to the gene modules underlying these pathways remained elusive. To bridge this knowledge gap, we employed a computational deconvolution approach to examine cell-type-specific gene expression profiles in major brain cell types, including astrocytes (AS), microglia (MG), oligodendroglia (OG), neurons (NEU), and vascular cells (VC). Our findings revealed that immune module genes were predominantly expressed in MG, OG, and VC. The lipid metabolism module genes were primarily expressed in AS, MG, and OG. The mitochondria module genes showed prominent expression in VC, and the synapse module genes were primarily expressed in NEU and VC. Furthermore, we identified intra- and inter-cell-type interactions among these module genes and validated their aging-associated expression changes using published single cell studies. Our study dissected bulk brain transcriptomics data at the cellular level, providing a closer examination of the cell-type contributions to the molecular pathways driven by aging.

APOE4 drives transcriptional heterogeneity and maladaptive immunometabolic responses of astrocytes.

Apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4) is the strongest risk allele associated with the development of late onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). Across the CNS, astrocytes are the predominant expressor of APOE while also being critical mediators of neuroinflammation and cerebral metabolism. APOE4 has been consistently linked with dysfunctional inflammation and metabolic processes, yet insights into the molecular constituents driving these responses remain unclear. Utilizing complementary approaches across humanized APOE mice and isogenic human iPSC astrocytes, we demonstrate that ApoE4 alters the astrocyte immunometabolic response to pro-inflammatory stimuli. Our findings show that ApoE4-expressing astrocytes acquire distinct transcriptional repertoires at single-cell and spatially-resolved domains, which are driven in-part by preferential utilization of the cRel transcription factor. Further, inhibiting cRel translocation in ApoE4 astrocytes abrogates inflammatory-induced glycolytic shifts and in tandem mitigates production of multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines. Altogether, our findings elucidate novel cellular underpinnings by which ApoE4 drives maladaptive immunometabolic responses of astrocytes.

APOE modulates microglial immunometabolism in response to age, amyloid pathology, and inflammatory challenge.

The E4 allele of Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is associated with both metabolic dysfunction and a heightened pro-inflammatory response: two findings that may be intrinsically linked through the concept of immunometabolism. Here, we combined bulk, single-cell, and spatial transcriptomics with cell-specific and spatially resolved metabolic analyses in mice expressing human APOE to systematically address the role of APOE across age, neuroinflammation, and AD pathology. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) highlighted immunometabolic changes across the APOE4 glial transcriptome, specifically in subsets of metabolically distinct microglia enriched in the E4 brain during aging or following an inflammatory challenge. E4 microglia display increased Hif1α expression and a disrupted tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and are inherently pro-glycolytic, while spatial transcriptomics and mass spectrometry imaging highlight an E4-specific response to amyloid that is characterized by widespread alterations in lipid metabolism. Taken together, our findings emphasize a central role for APOE in regulating microglial immunometabolism and provide valuable, interactive resources for discovery and validation research.

Evidence for the importance of OxPAPC interaction with cysteines in regulating endothelial cell function.

Oxidation products of 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphatidylcholine (PAPC), referred to as OxPAPC, and an active component, 1-palmitoyl-2-(5,6-epoxyisoprostane E2)-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (PEIPC), accumulate in atherosclerotic lesions and regulate over 1,000 genes in human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC). We previously demonstrated that OxPNB, a biotinylated analog of OxPAPC, covalently binds to a number of proteins in HAEC. The goal of these studies was to gain insight into the binding mechanism and determine whether binding regulates activity. In whole cells, N-acetylcysteine inhibited gene regulation by OxPAPC, and blocking cell cysteines with N-ethylmaleimide strongly inhibited the binding of OxPNB to HAEC proteins. Using MS, we demonstrate that most of the binding of OxPAPC to cysteine is mediated by PEIPC. We also show that OxPNB and PEIPE-NB, the analog of PEIPC, bound to a model protein, H-Ras, at cysteines previously shown to regulate activity in response to 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15dPGJ2). This binding was observed with recombinant protein and in cells overexpressing H-Ras. OxPAPC and PEIPC compete with OxPNB for binding to H-Ras. 15dPGJ2 and OxPAPC increased H-Ras activity at comparable concentrations. Using microarray analysis, we demonstrate a considerable overlap of gene regulation by OxPAPC, PEIPC, and 15dPGJ2 in HAEC, suggesting that some effects attributed to 15dPGJ2 may also be regulated by PEIPC because both molecules accumulate in inflammatory sites. Overall, we provide evidence for the importance of OxPAPC-cysteine interactions in regulating HAEC function.

Paraoxonase-2 modulates stress response of endothelial cells to oxidized phospholipids and a bacterial quorum-sensing molecule.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic infection has long been postulated as a stimulus for atherogenesis. Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection has been associated with increased atherosclerosis in rats, and these bacteria produce a quorum-sensing molecule 3-oxo-dodecynoyl-homoserine lactone (3OC12-HSL) that is critical for colonization and virulence. Paraoxonase 2 (PON2) hydrolyzes 3OC12-HSL and also protects against the effects of oxidized phospholipids thought to contribute to atherosclerosis. We now report the response of human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) to 3OC12-HSL and oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (Ox-PAPC) in relation to PON2 expression. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using expression profiling and network modeling, we identified the unfolded protein response (UPR), cell cycle genes, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway to be heavily involved in the HAEC response to 3OC12-HSL. The network also showed striking similarities to a network created based on HAEC response to Ox-PAPC, a major component of minimally modified low-density lipoprotein. HAECs in which PON2 was silenced by small interfering RNA showed increased proinflammatory response and UPR when treated with 3OC12-HSL or Ox-PAPC. CONCLUSION: 3OC12-HSL and Ox-PAPC influence similar inflammatory and UPR pathways. Quorum sensing molecules, such as 3OC12-HSL, contribute to the proatherogenic effects of chronic infection. The antiatherogenic effects of PON2 include destruction of quorum sensing molecules.

Improved ß-cell function leads to improved glucose tolerance in a transgenic mouse expressing lipoprotein lipase in adipocytes.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) hydrolyzes the triglyceride core of lipoproteins and also functions as a bridge, allowing for lipoprotein and cholesterol uptake. Transgenic mice expressing LPL in adipose tissue under the control of the adiponectin promoter (AdipoQ-LPL) have improved glucose metabolism when challenged with a high fat diet. Here, we studied the transcriptional response of the adipose tissue of these mice to acute high fat diet exposure. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) provided mechanistic insight into the improved metabolic phenotype of AdipoQ-LPL mice. First, the cholesterol homeostasis pathway, which is controlled by the SREBP2 transcription factor, is repressed in gonadal adipose tissue AdipoQ-LPL mice. Furthermore, we identified SND1 as a link between SREBP2 and CCL19, an inflammatory chemokine that is reduced in AdipoQ-LPL mice. Second, GSEA identified a signature for pancreatic ß-cells in adipose tissue of AdipoQ-LPL mice, an unexpected finding. We explored whether ß-cell function is improved in AdipoQ-LPL mice and found that the first phase of insulin secretion is increased in mice challenged with high fat diet. In summary, we identify two different mechanisms for the improved metabolic phenotype of AdipoQ-LPL mice. One involves improved adipose tissue function and the other involves adipose tissue-pancreatic ß-cell crosstalk.

Macrophage-derived thrombospondin 1 promotes obesity-associated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Thrombospondin 1 (TSP1) is a multifunctional matricellular protein. We previously showed that TSP1 has an important role in obesity-associated metabolic complications, including inflammation, insulin resistance, cardiovascular, and renal disease. However, its contribution to obesity-associated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NAFLD or NASH) remains largely unknown; thus, we aimed to determine its role. METHODS: High-fat diet or AMLN (amylin liver NASH) diet-induced obese and insulin-resistant NAFLD/NASH mouse models were utilised, in addition to tissue-specific Tsp1-knockout mice, to determine the contribution of different cellular sources of obesity-induced TSP1 to NAFLD/NASH development. RESULTS: Liver TSP1 levels were increased in experimental obese and insulin-resistant NAFLD/NASH mouse models as well as in obese patients with NASH. Moreover, TSP1 deletion in adipocytes did not protect mice from diet-induced NAFLD/NASH. However, myeloid/macrophage-specific TSP1 deletion protected mice against obesity-associated liver injury, accompanied by reduced liver inflammation and fibrosis. Importantly, this protection was independent of the levels of obesity and hepatic steatosis. Mechanistically, through an autocrine effect, macrophage-derived TSP1 suppressed Smpdl3b expression in liver, which amplified liver proinflammatory signalling (Toll-like receptor 4 signal pathway) and promoted NAFLD progression. CONCLUSIONS: Macrophage-derived TSP1 is a significant contributor to obesity-associated NAFLD/NASH development and progression and could serve as a therapeutic target for this disease. LAY SUMMARY: Obesity-associated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is a most common chronic liver disease in the Western world and can progress to liver cirrhosis and cancer. No treatment is currently available for this disease. The present study reveals an important factor (macrophage-derived TSP1) that drives macrophage activation and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease development and progression and that could serve as a therapeutic target for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/steatohepatitis.

Role of Heparin-Binding Epidermal Growth Factor-Like Growth Factor in Oxidative Stress-Associated Metabolic Diseases.

Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) is an EGF family member that interacts with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and ERBB4. Since HB-EGF was first identified as a novel growth factor secreted from a human macrophage cell line, numerous pathological and physiological functions related to cell proliferation, migration, and inflammation have been reported. Notably, the expression of HB-EGF is sensitively upregulated by oxidative stress in the endothelial cells and functions for auto- and paracrine-EGFR signaling. Overnutrition and obesity cause elevation of HB-EGF expression and EGFR signaling in the hepatic and vascular systems. Modulations of HB-EGF signaling showed a series of protections against phenotypes related to metabolic syndrome and advanced metabolic diseases, suggesting HB-EGF as a potential target against metabolic diseases.

Targeting hepatic heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) induces anti-hyperlipidemia leading to reduction of angiotensin II-induced aneurysm development.

OBJECTIVE: The upregulated expression of heparin binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) in the vessel and circulation is associated with risk of cardiovascular disease. In this study, we tested the effects of HB-EGF targeting using HB-EGF-specific antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) on the development of aortic aneurysm in a mouse aneurysm model. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) deficient mice (male, 16 weeks of age) were injected with control and HB-EGF ASOs for 10 weeks. To induce aneurysm, the mice were fed a high fat diet (22% fat, 0.2% cholesterol; w/w) at 5 week point of ASO administration and infused with angiotensin II (AngII, 1,000ng/kg/min) for the last 4 weeks of ASO administration. We confirmed that the HB-EGF ASO administration significantly downregulated HB-EGF expression in multiple tissues including the liver. Importantly, the HB-EGF ASO administration significantly suppressed development of aortic aneurysms including thoracic and abdominal types. Interestingly, the HB-EGF ASO administration induced a remarkable anti-hyperlipidemic effect by suppressing very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) level in the blood. Mechanistically, the HB-EGF targeting suppressed hepatic VLDL secretion rate without changing heparin-releasable plasma triglyceride (TG) hydrolytic activity or fecal neutral cholesterol excretion rate. CONCLUSION: This result suggested that the HB-EGF targeting induced protection against aneurysm development through anti-hyperlipidemic effects. Suppression of hepatic VLDL production process appears to be a key mechanism for the anti-hyperlipidemic effects by the HB-EGF targeting.

Brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) venom phospholipase D (PLD) generates lysophosphatidic acid (LPA).

Envenomation by the brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) may cause local dermonecrosis and, rarely, coagulopathies, kidney failure and death. A venom phospholipase, SMaseD (sphingomyelinase D), is responsible for the pathological manifestations of envenomation. Recently, the recombinant SMaseD from Loxosceles laeta was demonstrated to hydrolyse LPC (lysophosphatidylcholine) to produce LPA (lysophosphatidic acid) and choline. Therefore activation of LPA signalling pathways may be involved in some manifestations of Loxosceles envenomation. To begin investigating this idea, we cloned a full-length cDNA encoding L. reclusa SMaseD. The 305 amino acid sequence of the L. reclusa enzyme is 87, 85 and 60% identical with those of L. arizonica, L. intermedia and L. laeta respectively. The recombinant enzyme expressed in bacteria had broad substrate specificity. The lysophospholipids LPC, LPI (18:1-1-oleyol lysophosphatidylinositol), LPS, LPG (18:1-1-oleoyl-lysophosphatidylglycerol), LBPA (18:1-1-oleoyl-lysobisphosphatidic acid) (all with various acyl chains), lyso-platelet-activating factor (C16:0), cyclic phosphatidic acid and sphingomyelin were hydrolysed, whereas sphingosylphosphorylcholine, PC (phosphatidylcholine; C22:6, C20:4 and C6:0), oxidized PCs and PAF (platelet-activating factor; C16:0) were not hydrolysed. The PAF analogue, edelfosine, inhibited enzyme activity. Recombinant enzyme plus LPC (C18:1) induced the migration of A2058 melanoma cells, and this activity was blocked by the LPA receptor antagonist, VPC32183. The recombinant spider enzyme was haemolytic, but this activity was absent from catalytically inactive H37N (His37-->Asn) and H73N mutants. Our results demonstrate that Loxosceles phospholipase D hydrolyses a wider range of lysophospholipids than previously supposed, and thus the term 'SMaseD' is too limited in describing this enzyme.

An epoxyisoprostane is a major regulator of endothelial cell function.

The goal of these studies was to determine the effect of 5,6-epoxyisoprostane, EI, on human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC). EI can form as a phospholipase product of 1-palmitoyl-2-(5,6-epoxyisoprostane E2)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, PEIPC, a proinflammatory molecule that accumulates in sites of inflammation where phospholipases are also increased. To determine the effect of EI on HAEC, we synthesized several stereoisomers of EI using a convergent approach from the individual optically pure building blocks, the epoxyaldehydes 5 and 6 and the bromoenones 14 and 16. The desired stereoisomer of EI can be prepared from these materials in only six operations, and thus, large amounts of the product can be obtained. The trans/trans isomers had the most potent activity, suggesting specificity in the interaction of EI with the cell surface. EI has potent anti-inflammatory effects in HAEC. EI strongly inhibits the production of MCP-1, a major monocyte chemotactic factor, and either decreases or minimally increases the levels of 10 proinflammatory molecules increased by PEIPC. EI also strongly down-regulates the inflammatory effects of IL-1ß, a major inflammatory cytokine. Thus EI, a hydrolytic product of PEIPC, has potent anti-inflammatory function.

A role for VEGFR2 activation in endothelial responses caused by barrier disruptive OxPAPC concentrations.

INTRODUCTION: Oxidation products of 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (OxPAPC) differentially modulate endothelial cell (EC) barrier function in a dose-dependent fashion. Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR2) is involved in the OxPAPC-induced EC inflammatory activation. This study examined a role of VEGFR2 in barrier dysfunction caused by high concentrations of OxPAPC and evaluated downstream signaling mechanisms resulting from the effect of OxPAPC in EC from pulmonary and systemic circulation. METHODS: EC monolayer permeability in human pulmonary artery endothelial cells (HPAEC) and human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC) was monitored by changes in transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) across EC monolayers. Actin cytoskeleton was examined by immunostaining with Texas Red labeled phalloidin. Phosphorylation of myosin light chains (MLC) and VE-Cadherin was examined by Western blot and immunofluorescence techniques. The role of VEGFR2 in OxPAPC-induced permeability and cytoskeletal arrangement were determined using siRNA-induced VEGFR2 knockdown. RESULTS: Low OxPAPC concentrations (5-20 µg/ml) induced a barrier protective response in both HPAEC and HAEC, while high OxPAPC concentrations (50-100 µg/ml) caused a rapid increase in permeability; actin stress fiber formation and increased MLC phosphorylation were observed as early as 30 min after treatment. VEGFR2 knockdown dramatically decreased the amount of MLC phosphorylation and stress fiber formation caused by high OxPAPC concentrations with modest effects on the amount of VE-cadherin phosphorylation at Y(731). We present evidence that activation of Rho is involved in the OxPAPC/VEGFR2 mechanism of EC permeability induced by high OxPAPC concentrations. Knockdown of VEGFR2 did not rescue the early drop in TER but prevented further development of OxPAPC-induced barrier dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that VEGFR2 is involved in the delayed phase of EC barrier dysfunction caused by high OxPAPC concentrations and contributes to stress fiber formation and increased MLC phosphorylation.

Ox-PAPC activation of PMET system increases expression of heme oxygenase-1 in human aortic endothelial cell.

Oxidized-1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine (Ox-PAPC) has been demonstrated to accumulate in atherosclerotic lesions and regulates expression of more than 1,000 genes in human aortic endothelial cell (HAEC). Among the most highly induced is heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a cell-protective antioxidant enzyme, which is sensitively induced by oxidative stress. To identify the pathway by which Ox-PAPC induces HO-1, we focused on the plasma membrane electron transport (PMET) complex, which contains ecto-NADH oxidase 1 (eNOX1) and NADPH:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and affects cellular redox status by regulating levels of NAD(P)H. We demonstrated that Ox-PAPC and its active components stimulated electron transfer through the PMET complex in HAECs from inside to outside [as determined by extracellular 2-(4-iodophenyl)-3-(44-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (WST-1) reduction] and from outside to inside of the cell (as determined by intracellular NBT reduction). Chemical inhibitors of PMET system and siRNAs to PMET components (NQO1 and eNOX1) significantly decreased HO-1 induction by Ox-PAPC. We present evidence that Ox-PAPC activation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) in HAEC plays an important role in the induction of HO-1 and PMET inhibitors blocked Nrf2 activation by Ox-PAPC. We hypothesized that PMET activation by Ox-PAPC causes intracellular NAD(P)H depletion, which leads to the increased oxidative stress and HO-1 induction. Supporting this hypothesis, cotreatment of cells with exogenous NAD(P)H and Ox-PAPC significantly decreased oxidative stress and HO-1 induction by Ox-PAPC. Taken together, we demonstrated that the PMET system in HAEC plays an important role in the regulation of cellular redox status and HO-1 expression by Ox-PAPC.