Micro-relational interdependencies are the essence of teaching and learning in the OR.

CONTEXT: In the high-stakes, time-critical environment of the operating room (OR), attendings and residents strive to complete safe, effective surgeries and ensure that learning occurs. Yet meaningful resident participation often receives less attention, and that impedes residents' ability to learn and achieve autonomous operative practice. We need a new conceptual framework for understanding progression to autonomous practice that can guide both faculty and residents. Thus, we sought a new conceptualisation of intraoperative teaching and learning (IOT&L) through the lens of Eraut's notion of informal workplace learning and Billett's theory of relational interdependence between social and individual agency. METHODS: We viewed authentic examples of IOT&L in video and transcripts of live OR cases and interviews with participating attendings and residents. By systematically applying Eraut and Billet's theories to the transcripts and interviews, we developed concrete descriptions about how IOT&L occurs, categorised them into theory-based principles and derived a conceptualisation and related research ideas about IOT&L. RESULTS: Established workplace learning theories frame IOT&L as socially negotiated processes transpiring in distinct interdependent interactions between residents' individual cognitive experiences and their OR social experiences that direct their learning. As the surgery unfolds, spontaneous events and the rules of surgery create opportunities for unplanned and informal learning. These authentic interrelated cognitive and social experiences are stimulated when residents reveal a learning need or attendings recognise a learning gap, and efforts ensue to bridge that gap. Through these minute distinct exchanges, labelled here as 'atomic' IOT&L, residents gain crucial knowledge and skill. CONCLUSION: Framing authentic OR interactions between attendings and residents in terms of micro-relational interdependencies shows how granular teaching/learning exchanges yield high-value informal learning. To improve IOT&L, we must examine and change it at this fundamental level by using and testing this new theoretical conceptualisation. These insights produced ideas about IOT&L to test and research.

Preventing Error in the Operating Room: Five Teaching Strategies for High-Stakes Learning.

BACKGROUND: Effective communication in the operating room between the attending and resident surgeon is necessary to prevent surgical errors. Yet, existing studies do not describe what successful intraoperative teaching looks like and how it prevents errors. Our objective was to identify strategies for successful intraoperative teaching by comparing perspectives of the learner and teacher for the same moments. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We conducted a naturalistic inquiry by filming five live surgical teaching cases and analyzing more than 250 teaching exchanges, centered on steps with high likelihood for error. We interviewed each attending and resident, who separately viewed cued video clips, and asked how they made their teaching more visible. We compared answers, looking for common understandings of the same moment. Answers were coded, compared to each other, refined, and combined into larger themes. RESULTS: We identified five successful strategies for communicating avoidance of intraoperative errors: augmenting verbal instruction with small physical actions, pausing the surgical procedure to explain the larger picture, querying the residents' knowledge about specific steps, creating memorable coined names, and issuing highly specific commands. Strikingly, we found a significant example of miscommunication between the attending surgeon and resident that was a near-miss uterine perforation during a dilation and curettage. CONCLUSIONS: Attending surgeons are strategic in their intraoperative communications with learners, resulting in a scarcity of surgical errors when the resident is operating. We present real examples of five successful intraoperative teaching strategies. Successful intraoperative teaching relies heavily on tacit information, necessitating that attending and resident share a common understanding about the next step of the case.

A qualitative study of gender differences in the experiences of general surgery trainees.

BACKGROUND: Women surgeons continue to face unique challenges to professional advancement. Higher attrition rates and lower confidence among female surgical residents suggest that experiences during residency differ by gender. Few studies have investigated gender-specific experiences during training. This study identifies gender-based differences in the experiences of general surgery residents that could affect professional development. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Male and female general surgery residents at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center participated in a semi-structured interview study exploring the significance of gender in training. Recurring themes were identified from transcribed interviews using inductive methods. Two individuals independently coded interviews. Themes were compared for male and female residents. Certain themes arose with greater frequency in reference to one gender over the other. RESULTS: Twenty-four male and eighteen female residents participated (87.5%) in the study. Fewer female residents self-identified as a "surgeon" (11.1% versus 37.5%, P < 0.001). Residents felt that patients and physicians more frequently disregarded female residents' professional role (P < 0.001). Female residents also more often mentioned perceiving aggressive behaviors from attendings and support staff (9% versus 1% and 10% versus 3%, respectively). Relative to men, women more often mentioned lack of mentorship (0% versus 8%), discomfort (4% versus 8%), feeling pressured to participate in unprofessional behaviors (2% versus 5%), and having difficulty completing tasks (5% versus 10%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Women experience gender-based challenges during surgical training. Further investigation is needed to determine how these experiences affect professional development.

Optimization of a standardized letter of recommendation for faculty who wish to support candidates applying to surgical training programs.

Letters of recommendation (LORs) play an important role in applicant selection for graduate medical education programs. LORs may be of increasing importance in the evaluation of applicants given the recent change of the USMLE Step 1 to pass/fail scoring and the relative lack of other objective measures by which to differentiate and stratify applicants. Narrative letters of recommendation (NLORs), although widely used, have certain limitations, namely variability in interpretation, introduction of gender/race bias, and performance inflation. Standardized letters of recommendation (SLOR) have been proposed as a potential corrective to these limitations. We conducted a series of semi-structured interviews and focus groups to gather perspectives from letter writers and readers to inform methods for improving information elicited by SLORs from which we collected and analyzed data using the constant comparative method and a process of iterative coding. We applied our findings to the development of a novel SLOR for use in surgical residency program applications and were subsequently invited to help revise existing SLORs for a surgical post-graduate training program.

Optimizing surgical teaching through the lens of sociocultural learning theory.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to identify intraoperative instructional strategies that embody the ways that learning occurs in the social contexts of surgery. METHODS: We performed a qualitative review of examples of intraoperative teaching from transcripts of ten videotaped surgeries, coupled with interviews with surgical attendings and residents. We coded the examples according to the key tenets of sociocultural learning theories and used these codes to develop instructional strategies aimed at improving resident surgical autonomy. RESULTS: The sociocultural learning theories prompted six intraoperative teaching strategies (Assess Learner Needs, Inquire, Coach, Permit, Entrust, and Debrief) to address residents' learning needs in specific surgical tasks. The six strategies involve identifying procedure-specific learning needs; discussing interventions based on strategies successful with other learners; providing in-the-moment, interactive coaching; allowing the resident to struggle; increasing the resident's graduated responsibility; debriefing about successes and struggles. CONCLUSIONS: We argue that these six strategies should improve the quality of intraoperative teaching, and therefore, enhance progression to autonomous practice.

The Complexity of the Retropubic Midurethral Sling: A Cognitive Task Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of this study was to use cognitive task analysis to expand the retropubic midurethral sling into smaller steps, reflecting a surgeon's internal thought processes during the surgery. METHODS: Two surgeons and a cognitive psychologist collaborated with expert urogynecologic surgeons in structured discussions and semistructured interviews, iteratively creating a list of clinical steps for the midurethral sling. They primarily considered 2 questions: (1) what action does the expert perform for this step, and (2) what information does the expert need to complete the step? We defined each additional piece of detail within a step as a microstep. The cognitive task analysis list was further reviewed by 4 external expert urogynecologic surgeons to obtain further detail. The process was repeated for every step until the maximum level of detail was reached. We used multiple methods to explore the relationship between microsteps and the cognitive load associated with various portions of the surgery. RESULTS: Cognitive task analysis expanded the midurethral sling from 23 to 197 microsteps. Steps with the greatest number of microsteps included retropubic advancement with the trocar (19 microsteps) and ventral advancement of the trocar through the skin (17 microsteps). CONCLUSIONS: The retropubic midurethral sling is a complex surgery with multiple microsteps embedded within in each step. Identification of these steps can lead to strategies to minimize cognitive load encouraging both efficacy and safety. Surgical training interventions and competency assessment can be developed based on this content.

Maintaining operative efficiency while allowing sufficient time for residents to learn.

BACKGROUND: Surgical residents desire independent operating experience but recognize that attendings have a responsibility to keep cases as short as possible. METHODS: We analyzed video and interviews of attending surgeons related to more than 400 moments in which the resident was the primary operator. We examined these moments for themes related to timing and pace. RESULTS: Our surgeons encouraged the residents to speed up when patient safety could be jeopardized by the case moving too slowly. In contrast, they encouraged the residents to slow down when performing a crucial step or granting independence. Attending surgeons encouraged speed through economical language, by substituting physical actions for words, and through the use of Intelligent Cooperation. Conversely, they encouraged slowing down via just-in-time mini-lectures and by questioning the trainee. CONCLUSIONS: We present recommendations for safe teaching in the operating room while simultaneously maintaining overall surgical flow. Teaching residents to operate quickly can save time and is likely based on an automaticity in teaching. Slowing a resident down is vital for trainee skill development and patient safety.

Perceptions Regarding Mentorship Among General Surgery Trainees With Academic Career Intentions.

OBJECTIVE: Effective mentorship may be an opportunity to mitigate career de-prioritization, improve stress management, and bolster professional growth. Relatively few studies address specific challenges that occur for general surgery trainees. We conducted a focus group-based investigation to determine facilitators/barriers to effective mentorship among general surgery residents, who are intending to pursue an academic career. DESIGN: A semistructured focus group study was conducted to explore residents' attitudes and experiences regarding (1) needs for mentorship, (2) barriers to identifying mentors, and (3) characteristics of successful mentor-mentee interactions. Subjects self-identified and were characterized as either "Mentored" or "Nonmentored." Transcriptions were independently reviewed by 3 coders. Inter-rater reliability between the coders was evaluated by calculating Cohen's kappa for each coded item. SETTING: General surgery residents from 2 academic tertiary hospitals, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, and University of Washington, participated. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-four general surgery trainees were divided into 8 focus groups. RESULTS: There were no gender-based differences in mentoring needs among residents. Barriers to establishing a relationship with a mentor, such as lack of exposure to faculty, and time and determination on the part of both mentor and mentee, were exacerbated by aspects of surgical culture including gender dynamics, criticism, and hierarchy. Successful relationships between mentee and mentor were perceived to require personal/professional compatibility and a feeling that the mentor is invested in the mentee, while conflicts of interest and neglect detracted from a successful relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Our investigations demonstrate the importance of surgical hierarchy and culture in facilitating interpersonal interactions with potential mentors. Further studies will be necessary to determine how best to address these barriers.

Intelligent cooperation: A framework of pedagogic practice in the operating room.

BACKGROUND: Surgeons who work with trainees must address their learning needs without compromising patient safety. METHODS: We used a constructivist grounded theory approach to examine videos of five teaching surgeries. Attending surgeons were interviewed afterward while watching cued videos of their cases. Codes were iteratively refined into major themes, and then constructed into a larger framework. RESULTS: We present a novel framework, Intelligent Cooperation, which accounts for the highly adaptive, iterative features of surgical teaching in the operating room. Specifically, we define Intelligent Cooperation as a sequence of coordinated exchanges between attending and trainee that accomplishes small surgical steps while simultaneously uncovering the trainee's learning needs. CONCLUSIONS: Intelligent Cooperation requires the attending to accurately determine learning needs, perform real-time needs assessment, provide critical scaffolding, and work with the learner to accomplish the next step in the surgery. This is achieved through intense, coordinated verbal and physical cooperation.

How can surgeons facilitate resident intraoperative decision-making?

BACKGROUND: Cognitive skills such as decision-making are critical to developing operative autonomy. We explored resident decision-making using a recollection of specific examples, from the attending surgeon and resident, after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. METHODS: In a separate semi-structured interview, the attending and resident both answered five questions, regarding the resident's operative roles and decisions, ways the attending helped, times when the attending operated, and the effect of the relationship between attending and resident. Themes were extracted using inductive methods. RESULTS: Thirty interviews were completed after 15 cases. Facilitators of decision-making included dialogue, safe struggle, and appreciation for retraction. Aberrant case characteristics, anatomic uncertainties, and time pressures provided barriers. Attending-resident mismatches included descriptions of transitioning control to the attending. CONCLUSIONS: Reciprocal dialogue, including concept-driven feedback, is helpful during intraoperative teaching. Unanticipated findings impede resident decision-making, and we describe differences in understanding transfers of operative control. Given these factors, we suggest that pre-operative discussions may be beneficial.

How surgical mentors teach: a classification of in vivo teaching behaviors part 2: physical teaching guidance.

OBJECTIVES: To study surgical teaching captured on film and analyze it at a fine level of detail to categorize physical teaching behaviors. DESIGN: We describe live, filmed, intraoperative nonverbal exchanges between surgical attending physicians and their trainees (residents and fellows). From the films, we chose key teaching moments and transcribed participants' utterances, actions, and gestures. In follow-up interviews, attending physicians and trainees watched videos of their teaching case and answered open-ended questions about their teaching methods. Using a grounded theory approach, we examined the videos and interviews for what might be construed as a teaching behavior and refined the physical teaching categories through constant comparison. SETTING: We filmed 5 cases in the operating suite of a university teaching hospital that provides gynecologic surgical care. PARTICIPANTS: We included 5 attending gynecologic surgeons, 3 fellows, and 5 residents for this study. RESULTS: More than 6 hours of film and 3 hours of interviews were transcribed, and more than 250 physical teaching motions were captured. Attending surgeons relied on actions and gestures, sometimes wordlessly, to achieve pedagogical and surgical goals simultaneously. Physical teaching included attending physician-initiated actions that required immediate corollary actions from the trainee, gestures to illustrate a step or indicate which instrument to be used next, supporting or retracting tissues, repositioning the trainee's instruments, and placement of the attending physicians' hands on the trainees' hands to guide them. Attending physicians often voiced surprise at the range of their own teaching behaviors captured on film. Interrater reliability was high using the Cohen κ, which was 0.76 for the physical categories. CONCLUSIONS: Physical guidance is essential in educating a surgical trainee, may be tacit, and is not always accompanied by speech. Awareness of teaching behaviors may encourage deliberate teaching and reflection on how to innovate pedagogy for the teaching operating room.

How surgical mentors teach: a classification of in vivo teaching behaviors part 1: verbal teaching guidance.

OBJECTIVES: To illuminate surgical teaching at a fine level of detail by filming intraoperative communication between surgical attending physicians and trainees and provide a naturalistic categorization and analysis of verbal teaching behaviors. DESIGN: Live, intraoperative verbal exchanges between surgical attending physicians and their trainees (residents and fellows) were filmed, and key verbal teaching moments were transcribed. In follow-up interviews, attending physicians and trainees watched video clips of their teaching case and answered open-ended questions about their surgical teaching methods. Using a grounded theory approach, we examined the videos and interviews for what might be construed as a teaching behavior and refined verbal teaching categories through constant comparison. SETTING: We filmed 5 cases in the operating suite of a university teaching hospital that provides gynecologic surgical care. PARTICIPANTS: We included 5 attending gynecologic surgeons, 3 fellows, and 5 residents for this study. RESULTS: More than 6 hours of film, 3 hours of interviews, and more than 400 verbal teaching utterances from our participating attending surgeons were transcribed. We found that attending surgeons used unique types of verbal guidance to describe relevant anatomy, explain the rationale behind a specific surgical action, command the trainee to perform the next step, reference a specific aspect of the surgery, and provide an indirect verbal construct. Attending physicians prefixed speech with polite terms and used terse language, colorful verbal analogies, and sometimes humor. Our participants denied a significant Hawthorne effect. Interrater reliability was high using Cohen κ with 0.77 for the verbal categories. CONCLUSIONS: Our categorization of live intraoperative verbal teaching can provide a measurable, replicable basis for studying how spoken guidance can lead to the best intraoperative learning. Because surgical teaching occurs on a microscopic level, film review is important when analyzing intraoperative teaching behaviors.

Teaching techniques in the operating room: the importance of perceptual motor teaching.

PURPOSE: To identify sucessful teaching techniques in the operating room environment through examining the teaching of the midurethral sling (MUS) surgery. METHOD: The authors distributed questionnaires with open-ended questions about teaching and learning MUS to 5 urogynecology attendings and 16 obstetrics-gynecology residents in spring 2010. In an effort to identify qualities of an effective sling teacher, the authors used grounded theory to determine common themes and to code participant responses for examples. RESULTS: Of 21 potential respondents, 14 (67%) returned questionnaires. The authors analyzed these and identified seven commonalities among effective sling teachers: they (1) emphasize anatomical landmarks (as determined by 64 total comments); (2) use perceptual-motor teaching (PMT; 38 comments); (3) encourage repetition (28); (4) promote early independence (34); (5) demonstrate confident competence (23); (6) maintain a calm demeanor in the operating room (20); and (7) exhibit a willingness to accept responsibility for mistakes and consequences (9). The second-most common attribute, using PMT, requires the teaching attending to emphasize the motor and tactile aspects of operating and involves incorporating not only what learners see but also what they feel. CONCLUSIONS: The authors report seven qualities or techniques fundamental to good teaching practice in a high-stress, high-technology surgical environment, and they have identified the use of PMT, which to their knowledge has not been previously described. Teachers and learners in this study characterized PMT, which is likely generalizable to surgical procedures other than the MUS, as important. Future research should focus on exploring this technique in other surgeries.