An Investigation of Awareness and Metacognition in Neurofeedback with the Amygdala Electrical Fingerprint.

Awareness theory posits that individuals connected to a brain-computer interface can learn to estimate and discriminate their brain states. We used the amygdala Electrical Fingerprint (amyg-EFP) - a functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging-inspired Electroencephalogram surrogate of deep brain activation - to investigate whether participants could accurately estimate their own brain activation. Ten participants completed up to 20 neurofeedback runs and estimated their amygdala-EFP activation (depicted as a thermometer) and confidence in this rating during each trial. We analysed data using multilevel models, predicting the real thermometer position with participant rated position and adjusted for activation during the previous trial. Hypotheses on learning regulation and improvement of estimation were not confirmed. However, participant ratings were significantly associated with the amyg-EFP signal. Higher rating accuracy also predicted higher subjective confidence in the rating. This proof-of-concept study introduces an approach to study awareness with fMRI-informed neurofeedback and provides initial evidence for metacognition in neurofeedback.

The Scientific Study of Consciousness Cannot and Should Not Be Morally Neutral.

A target question for the scientific study of consciousness is how dimensions of consciousness, such as the ability to feel pain and pleasure or reflect on one's own experience, vary in different states and animal species. Considering the tight link between consciousness and moral status, answers to these questions have implications for law and ethics. Here we point out that given this link, the scientific community studying consciousness may face implicit pressure to carry out certain research programs or interpret results in ways that justify current norms rather than challenge them. We show that because consciousness largely determines moral status, the use of nonhuman animals in the scientific study of consciousness introduces a direct conflict between scientific relevance and ethics-the more scientifically valuable an animal model is for studying consciousness, the more difficult it becomes to ethically justify compromises to its well-being for consciousness research. Finally, in light of these considerations, we call for a discussion of the immediate ethical corollaries of the body of knowledge that has accumulated and for a more explicit consideration of the role of ideology and ethics in the scientific study of consciousness.

Neurofeedback through the lens of reinforcement learning.

Despite decades of experimental and clinical practice, the neuropsychological mechanisms underlying neurofeedback (NF) training remain obscure. NF is a unique form of reinforcement learning (RL) task, during which participants are provided with rewarding feedback regarding desired changes in neural patterns. However, key RL considerations - including choices during practice, prediction errors, credit-assignment problems, or the exploration-exploitation tradeoff - have infrequently been considered in the context of NF. We offer an RL-based framework for NF, describing different internal states, actions, and rewards in common NF protocols, thus fashioning new proposals for characterizing, predicting, and hastening the course of learning. In this way we hope to advance current understanding of neural regulation via NF, and ultimately to promote its effectiveness, personalization, and clinical utility.

Inducing a Functional-Pharmacological Coupling in the Human Brain to Achieve Improved Drug Effect.

Neuropharmacotherapy is substantially hindered by poor drug targeting, resulting in low specificity and efficacy. It is known that different behavioral tasks increase functional activity and cerebral blood flow (CBF), two key parameters controlling drug delivery and efficacy. Here, we tested a novel, non-invasive drug targeting approach (termed functional-pharmacological coupling), which couples drug administration with a task that is known to specifically activate the drug's sites-of-action in the brain. In two studies we administered Methylphenidate (MPH) to neurotypical adults and to subjects with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In study 1 we employed a within-subject factorial design and found that only following MPH administration, subjects that performed better in the cognitive induction task showed greater improvements in N-back performance. Moreover, only under MPH-Cognitive induction condition, this improvement correlated with concurrent N-Back rDLPFC activation. In Study 2, subjects with ADHD performed better on sustained attention when MPH administration was followed by a cognitive challenge rather than a control task. Again, those who were more attentive to the cognitive challenge scored higher. Our results provide preliminary support for the feasibility of functional-pharmacological coupling concept, hence opening a new horizon for patient-tailored, context-driven drug therapy.

Publisher Correction: Process-based framework for precise neuromodulation.

The original and corrected text is shown in the accompanying Publisher Correction.

Publisher Correction: Process-based framework for precise neuromodulation.

The original and corrected figures, and the Editorial Summary, are shown in the accompanying Publisher Correction.An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Process-based framework for precise neuromodulation.

Functional MRI neurofeedback (NF) allows humans to self-modulate neural patterns in specific brain areas. This technique is regarded as a promising tool to translate neuroscientific knowledge into brain-guided psychiatric interventions. However, its clinical implementation is restricted by unstandardized methodological practices, by clinical definitions that are poorly grounded in neurobiology, and by lack of a unifying framework that dictates experimental choices. Here we put forward a new framework, termed 'process-based NF', which endorses a process-oriented characterization of mental dysfunctions to form precise and effective psychiatric treatments. This framework relies on targeting specific dysfunctional mental processes by modifying their underlying neural mechanisms and on applying process-specific contextual feedback interfaces. Finally, process-based NF offers designs and a control condition that address the methodological shortcomings of current approaches, thus paving the way for a precise and personalized neuromodulation.