Standard Fixed Enoxaparin Dosing for Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis Leads to Low Peak Anti-Factor Xa Levels in Both Head and Neck and Breast Free Flap Patients.

BACKGROUND: Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a serious complication, particularly in cancer patients undergoing free flap reconstruction. Subcutaneous enoxaparin is the conventional prophylaxis for VTE prevention, and serum anti-factor Xa (afXa) levels are being increasingly used to monitor enoxaparin activity. In this study, free flap patients receiving standard enoxaparin prophylaxis were prospectively followed to investigate postoperative afXa levels and 90-day VTE and bleeding-related complications. METHODS: Patients undergoing free tissue transfer during an 8-month period were identified and prospectively followed. Patients received standard fixed enoxaparin dosing at 30 mg twice daily in head and neck (H&N) and 40 mg daily in breast reconstructions. Target peak prophylactic afXa range was 0.2 to 0.5 IU/mL. The primary outcome was the occurrence of 90-day postoperative VTE- and bleeding-related events. Independent predictors of afXa level and VTE incidence were analyzed for patients that met the inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Seventy-eight patients were prospectively followed. Four (5.1%) were diagnosed with VTE, and six (7.7%) experienced bleeding-related complications. The mean afXa levels in both VTE patients and bleeding patients were subprophylactic (0.13 ± 0.09 and 0.11 ± 0.07 IU/mL, respectively). Forty-six patients (21 breast, 25 H&N) had valid postoperative peak steady-state afXa levels. Among these, 15 (33%) patients achieved the target prophylactic range: 5 (33%) H&N and 10 (67%) breast patients. The mean afXa level for H&N patients was significantly lower than for breast patients (p = 0.0021). Patient total body weight was the sole negative predictor of afXa level (R 2 = 0.47, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Standard fixed enoxaparin dosing for postoperative VTE prophylaxis does not achieve target afXa levels for the majority of our free flap patients. H&N patients appear to be a particularly high-risk group that may require a more personalized and aggressive approach. Total body weight is the sole negative predictor of afXa level, supporting a role for weight-based enoxaparin dosing.

Flap Closure of Spinal Defects in High-Risk Patients: A 10-Year Institutional Experience.

BACKGROUND: Complication rates after spinal surgery are high, in part because of surgical advancements that have made procedures available to a broader range of medically complicated patients. The high rates of infection, hematoma, and dehiscence resulting in open wounds after spinal surgery often warrant plastic surgery involvement. In this study, we aim to examine the effects of preoperative and operative risk factors on complication rates, reoperation rates, and hospital length of stay after flap reconstruction of spinal defects. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed of 373 patients who required flap reconstruction for spinal wound closure at our institution between 2003 and 2013. Data regarding demographics, comorbidities, operative variables, and postreconstructive course were collected. RESULTS: Of the 373 patients, 97.3% had at least 1 comorbid condition associated with poor wound healing, 91.2% had a significant wound condition at the time of reconstruction, and 81.8% had a history of 2 or more spinal surgeries. After reconstruction, average hospital stay was 14 days, with 35% of patients developing complications and 30% requiring reoperation. Risk factors including elevated body mass index, diabetes, tobacco use, steroid use, low prealbumin level, therapeutic anticoagulation, infection, history of spine surgery, multilevel spinal reconstruction, and spinal hardware were associated with complications, reoperations, and prolonged length of stay. CONCLUSIONS: Local muscle flap coverage is an effective strategy for the reconstruction of spinal defects in medically complex patients. To reduce the inherently high risks associated with paraspinous reconstruction in this challenging population, special consideration should be given to preoperative and operative variables associated with poor outcomes. Early coordination between spine and plastic surgeons should be considered in patients at high-risk of wound complications.

Quick Calculation of Breast Resection Mass Using the Schnur Scale.

In 1991, Dr Paul Schnur and his colleagues published an article correlating the weight of breast tissue to be removed in a breast reduction operation with the total body surface area (BSA) of the patient. They presented a very cogent argument for selecting three groups of patients: those with medical indications for operation, those who merit review, and those whose operation could be considered cosmetic. The Schnur Sliding Scale is widely used by insurance companies in the western United States in the process of preauthorizing breast reduction operations, and its use may be spreading eastward. The Schnur group presented a nomogram for calculating BSA and a scale in the form of a table for guiding a determination of whether the patient is a reconstructive patient as opposed to an aesthetic patient. We have combined the scale and the BSA nomogram for a simplified nomogram calculator that facilitates rapid determination of anticipated tissue weight of resection for a patient of a given size. This calculator yields the required weight of tissue to remove with just knowledge of the patient's height and weight and the use of a straight edge. We demonstrate and compare performance of this calculation by hand and by nomogram. There is ample evidence that the practice of applying the Schnur Sliding Scale may be prohibitive to symptomatic patients seeking reduction mammaplasty and should be abandoned. While this practice continues, our simplified Schnur Sliding Scale nomogram is meant to help easily determine the insurer-required minimum breast resection weight and thereby both improve patient counseling prior to planning surgery and assist the surgeon with achieving insurer reimbursement for the procedure while avoiding rejected claims.

Understanding the Impact and Misconceptions of Rural Plastic Surgery.

In the United States, 54 million people live in a designated health service area with either no plastic surgeon or less than 1 plastic surgeon per 100,000 population. Previous studies demonstrate that patients in rural communities often have limitations with access to basic primary care services and subspecialty care services. Such limitations can have significant adverse impacts on health care and quality of life. Plastic and reconstructive surgeons offer unique advantages especially within rural settings given their broad scope of surgical skillsets. The purposes of this study are to illustrate the shortage of plastic and reconstructive surgeons within rural America catchment regions, identify and outline certain care offerings provided by these surgical specialists, and highlight the potential impact having such specialists directly involved in provision of care to patients within rural community settings. Our group will present data demonstrating misperceptions and an unawareness by hospital administrators on routine care services provided through plastic surgery practices. We will also report on selective surgical offerings of 2 rural-based plastic surgeons and outline certain financial and reimbursement findings from their practices, while also illustrating the impact of their practice on their patients and the health care systems they provide coverage.

Graphical Calculation of Estimated Energy Expenditure in Burn Patients.

BACKGROUND: Historically, estimated energy expenditure (EEE) has been related to the percent of body surface area burned. Subsequent evaluations of these estimates have indicated that the earlier formulas may overestimate the amount of caloric support necessary for burn-injured patients. Ireton-Jones et al derived 2 equations for determining the EEE required to support burn patients, 1 for ventilator-dependent patients and 1 for spontaneously breathing patients. Evidence has proved their reliability, but they remain challenging to apply in a clinical setting given the difficult and cumbersome mathematics involved. This study aims to introduce a graphical calculation of EEE in burn patients that can be easily used in the clinical setting. METHODS: The multivariant linear regression analysis from Ireton-Jones et al yielded equations that were rearranged into the form of a simple linear equation of the type y = mx + b. By choosing an energy expenditure and the age of the subject, the weight was calculated. The endpoints were then calculated, and a graph was mapped by means of Adobe FrameMaker. RESULTS: A graphical representation of Ireton-Jones et al's equations was obtained by plotting the weight (kg) on the y axis, the age (years) on the x axis, and a series of parallel lines representing the EEE in burn patients. The EEE has been displayed graphically on a grid to allow rapid determination of the EEE needed for a given patient of a designated weight and age. Two graphs were plotted: 1 for ventilator-dependent patients and 1 for spontaneously breathing patients. Correction factors for sex, the presence of additional trauma, and obesity are indicated on the graphical calculators. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a graphical tool to calculate caloric requirements in a fast, easy, and portable manner.

Simplified Calvarial Reconstruction: Coverage of Bare Skull With GammaGraft Promotes Granulation and Facilitates Skin Grafting.

Repair of scalp defects with exposed calvaria remains a difficult clinical problem. Herein, we present a simple alternative method of scalp reconstruction. Coverage of bare skull with GammaGraft (Promethean LifeSciences, Inc, Pittsburgh, PA) promotes the evolution of granulation tissue and permits subsequent skin grafting without need for burring, drilling, or other manipulation of the outer table of the calvaria. A retrospective review of patients undergoing scalp reconstruction utilizing GammaGraft and subsequent skin grafting was performed at our institution. From our cohort, 5 patients treated with GammaGraft and subsequent skin grafting had both immediate and long-term follow-up available. Indications for scalp reconstruction included erosions of prior skin grafts and direct excision of full-thickness scalp and pericranium. Average time to definitive skin grafting was 3 weeks; repeat application of GammaGraft was required in some patients with reapplication to subsequent smaller wounds as healing occurred. Complications were minor and consisted of ongoing wound drainage. Alternative flap reconstruction was not required in any patient due to treatment failures. No major complications, wound infections, or early reoperations occurred in any of the patients; 1 patient to date has required repeat reconstruction due to recurrent disease. Coverage of bare skull with GammaGraft and subsequent skin grafting provides a simple and elegant solution to an often too difficult clinical problem. Confirmed by results in out limited series, the utilization of GammaGraft in calvarial reconstruction represents an alternative method in surgical care of complex scalp defects with exposed bone.

Upper-extremity transplantation using a cell-based protocol to minimize immunosuppression.

OBJECTIVE: To minimize maintenance immunosuppression in upper-extremity transplantation to favor the risk-benefit balance of this procedure. BACKGROUND: Despite favorable outcomes, broad clinical application of reconstructive transplantation is limited by the risks and side effects of multidrug immunosuppression. We present our experience with upper-extremity transplantation under a novel, donor bone marrow (BM) cell-based treatment protocol ("Pittsburgh protocol"). METHODS: Between March 2009 and September 2010, 5 patients received a bilateral hand (n = 2), a bilateral hand/forearm (n = 1), or a unilateral (n = 2) hand transplant. Patients were treated with alemtuzumab and methylprednisolone for induction, followed by tacrolimus monotherapy. On day 14, patients received an infusion of donor BM cells isolated from 9 vertebral bodies. Comprehensive follow-up included functional evaluation, imaging, and immunomonitoring. RESULTS: All patients are maintained on tacrolimus monotherapy with trough levels ranging between 4 and 12 ng/mL. Skin rejections were infrequent and reversible. Patients demonstrated sustained improvements in motor function and sensory return correlating with time after transplantation and level of amputation. Side effects included transient increase in serum creatinine, hyperglycemia managed with oral hypoglycemics, minor wound infection, and hyperuricemia but no infections. Immunomonitoring revealed transient moderate levels of donor-specific antibodies, adequate immunocompetence, and no peripheral blood chimerism. Imaging demonstrated patent vessels with only mild luminal narrowing/occlusion in 1 case. Protocol skin biopsies showed absent or minimal perivascular cellular infiltrates. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that this BM cell-based treatment protocol is safe, is well tolerated, and allows upper-extremity transplantation using low-dose tacrolimus monotherapy.

A Nomogram for the Rapid Prediction of Hematocrit Following Blood Loss and Fluid Shifts in Neonates, Infants, and Adults.

Introduction There is often a need for a simple means of predicting hematocrit (Hct) following blood loss, administration of intravenous fluids, or fluid shifts. The aim of this study is to introduce a nomogram for the rapid prediction of blood volume and packed red cell volume appropriate for a given patient's body weight and Hct in both the pediatric and adult populations. Methods A nomogram for prediction of Hct was created using the following variables: 1) blood volume determined from bodyweight, 2) estimated blood loss, and 3) initial Hct. Results Hct was calculated after blood loss, administration of intravenous fluids, or fluid shifts using the pediatric and adult nomograms. Alternatively, the nomograms can be used to back-calculate blood or fluid loss if Hct is known. The nomogram allows for adjustment for measured and insensible fluid losses and fluid administration. Conclusions  The nomogram helps to predict the Hct and fluid requirements in neonates, children, and adults with blood loss, fluid administration, and rehydration following dehydration. It allows for the calculation of Hct after fluid shifts in a simple, fast, and portable manner. We believe it can be a useful adjunct to monitor the fluid balance in all patients, especially in resource-limited settings where laboratory equipment may not be available.

Surgical Management of Hand Deformity in Epidermolysis Bullosa: Initial Experience and Technique.

Epidermolysis bullosa describes a rare group of genetic mucocutaneous disorders characterized by excessive epithelial fragility resulting in mechanically induced blistering and abnormal wound healing.1,2 Its prevalence and incidence are 8.2 and 19.6 per 1,000,000 live births, respectively.2 Gene therapy, protein replacement, and cell therapy strategies have been investigated, but there is currently no cure.2.

Ocular outcomes after gold weight placement and facial nerve resection.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of acute gold weight placement after facial nerve resection and to determine the role of concomitant lower eyelid procedures. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Twenty-two patients who received an upper eyelid gold weight at the time of parotidectomy and facial nerve resection were reviewed to assess ocular outcomes. RESULTS: After gold weight placement, twelve patients (12 of 22, 54.5%) subsequently presented with symptomatic ectropion (n = 9) and/or lagophthalmos (n = 5). Nine patients received a lower eyelid procedure (7 tarsal strips only, 1 tarsal strip combined with a lateral tarsorrhaphy, and 1 lateral tarsorrhaphy only). Six patients, in addition to a gold weight, also underwent a static sling to the midface at the time of facial nerve resection. None of these 6 received a subsequent lower eyelid procedure. Two patients required gold weight upsizing. Two patients required weight removal. CONCLUSIONS: Insertion of 1.2 gm upper eyelid weight with placement of midface sling is recommended at the time of facial nerve resection. Due to the need to tighten the lower eyelid in many of these patients, we now also consider performing a tarsal strip procedure at the time of facial nerve resection in any patient with pre-existing lower lid laxity.

Continuous intraoperative facial nerve monitoring in predicting postoperative injury during parotidectomy.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: To assess whether the use of continuous intraoperative facial nerve monitoring correlates to postoperative facial nerve injury during parotidectomy. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective analysis. METHODS: Forty-five consecutive parotidectomies were performed using an electromyograph (EMG)-based intraoperative facial nerve monitor. Of those, 37 had complete data for analysis. Intraoperative findings and final interpretation of the EMGs were analyzed by a senior neurologist and neurophysiologist. All patients were analyzed, including those with preoperative weakness and facial nerve sacrifice. RESULTS: The overall incidence of facial paralysis (House-Brackmann scale > 1) was 43% for temporary and 22% for permanent deficits. This includes an 11% incidence of preoperative weakness and 14% with intraoperative sacrifice. An abnormal EMG occurred in only 16% of cases and was not significantly associated with permanent or temporary facial nerve paralysis (chi, P < 1.0; Fisher's exact P < .68). Of the eight patients with permanent paralysis, only two had abnormalities on the facial nerve monitor. Also, only one of five patients with intraoperative sacrifice of the facial nerve had an abnormal EMG. Factors significantly associated with the incidence of facial paralysis include malignancy, advanced age, extent of parotidectomy, and dissection beyond the parotid gland (chi and Fisher's, P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that abnormalities on the intraoperative continuous facial nerve monitor during parotidectomy do not predict facial nerve injury. The incidence of permanent and temporary facial nerve paralysis compare favorably with the literature given that this study includes patients with revision surgery, intraoperative sacrifice, and preoperative paralysis. Standard of care implications will be discussed.

A Closer Look at the 2013 to 2014 Integrated Plastic Surgery Match.

BACKGROUND: Plastic surgery has become an increasingly competitive, yet limited information is available in the literature on successfully matched plastic surgery applicants. The goal of this study was to analyze which factors predicted a successful National Residency Match Program match during the 2013 to 2014 cycle. METHODS: An electronic questionnaire was distributed to successfully matched medical students in plastic surgery. Information obtained included (1) academic performance, (2) medical school criteria, (3) visiting subinternship rotation criteria, and (4) research performance. Match "success" was defined as matching into one of the applicant's top three ranked programs RESULTS: Data were available for 127 matched students. Average Step 1 score was 247.93 (95 percent CI, 244.3 to 251.56). Step 1 scores correlated with the number of interviews received (r(2) = 0.355; p = 0.039). An odds ratio of 2.2 was observed for residents who had a plastic surgery residency program affiliated with their medical school and match success. Step 1 score (r(2) = 0.045; p = 0.798), Step 2 score (r(2) = 0.131; p = 0.505), Alpha Omega Alpha membership (r(2) = 0.011; p = 0.905), and number of publications (r(2) = 0.121; p = 0.458) did not correlate significantly with match success. CONCLUSIONS: Successful applicants had a Step 1 score that was 1 SD greater than the U.S. mean. Having a plastic surgery residency program affiliated with an applicant's medical school was an important predictor of match success. Objective measures (step scores, Alpha Omega Alpha membership, and number of publications) were not predictive of match success.

Suction-assisted lipectomy for lipodystrophy.

Lipodystrophy resulting from HIV disease or the antiretroviral therapy used to treat it is a common complication. We report on the treatment of cervical lipohypertrophy ("buffalo hump") with suction-assisted lipectomy in six patients.

Apoptosis and plastic surgery.

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a phenomenon that is integral to development and cellular homeostasis. In the last decade, many of the essential molecules and pathways that control this phenomenon have been elucidated. Because apoptosis is involved in almost all physiologic and pathologic processes, the understanding of its regulation has significant clinical ramifications. This article reviews the basic understanding of programmed cell death in terms of the effector molecules and pathways. Areas of interest to plastic surgeons are reviewed as they pertain to apoptosis. These areas include allotransplantation, craniofacial and limb development, flap survival, wound healing, stem cell science, and physiologic aging. These topics have not yet been studied extensively in the context of cell death. In this review article, other related and more comprehensively studied scientific areas are used to extrapolate their relevance to apoptosis. Apoptosis is an increasingly better understood process. With the knowledge of how programmed cell death is controlled, combined with the improved ability to effectively perform genetic manipulation and to design specific chemical approaches, apoptosis is gaining clinical relevance. In the next few years, practical clinical breakthroughs will help the medical community to understand the phenomenon of apoptosis and how it relates to the needs of patients.

Management of cutaneous human papillomavirus infection: surgery.

Surgical management is typically required when the clinician encounters an increased quantity of warts, large surface areas of affected, or when malignant transformation is suspected. Basic surgical techniques, such as cryosurgery, electrosurgery and surgical excision, are successful and relatively quick methods for removing warts and uncomplicated cutaneous malignancies. Mohs micrographic surgery is an amenable option when cutaneous malignancies are located in high-risk areas such as periocular or perinasal regions, lips, ears, digits and genitalia, tend to be larger in size, are recurrent, possess aggressive histological features, such as moderate-to-poor differentiation, or demonstrate perineural invasion. Situations involving a larger tumor burden, or requiring complicated surgical reconstruction in the operating room, may necessitate the assistance of plastic and reconstructive surgery. Herein, we describe treatment modalities employed in the surgical management of cutaneous human papillomavirus infection and include surgical teaching cases.

The scope of plastic surgery according to 2434 allopathic medical students in the United States.

BACKGROUND: The general public and physicians often equate plastic surgery with cosmetic surgery. The authors investigate whether this perception is present in U.S. medical students. METHODS: A national survey of first- and second-year allopathic medical students was conducted. Students were asked to determine whether 46 specific procedures are performed by plastic surgeons: 12 aesthetic and 34 reconstructive procedures, which were further separated into three subgroups (general reconstruction and breast, craniofacial, and hand and lower extremity). RESULTS: Of the questionnaires sent out, 2434 from 44 medical schools were returned completed (23 percent response rate); 90.7 percent of aesthetic, 66.0 percent of general reconstruction and breast, 51.0 percent of craniofacial, and 33.4 percent of hand and lower extremity procedures were correctly identified. There was no relationship with self-reported interest in plastic surgery (1 = not at all interested to 10 = extremely interested) and the number of correctly identified aesthetic procedures. However, there was a nonlinear relationship with correctly identified reconstructive procedures; compared to those with an interest level of 1 to 5, those who chose 10 scored on average 6.5 points higher (14.2 versus 20.7) (p < 0.01). An anticipated career in surgery was associated with more correctly identified procedures across all sections but neither year (first versus second) nor region (Northeast, South, Central, West) with any section. CONCLUSIONS: U.S. medical students are unaware of the true scope of plastic surgery. Early exposure to basic aspects of plastic surgery could serve as a means of increasing interest and knowledge in the field and help educate future generations of referring physicians.

Massive scrotal edema: an unusual manifestation of obstructive sleep apnea and obesity-hypoventilation syndrome.

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) may occur in association with obesity-hypoventilation (Pickwickian) syndrome, a disorder of ventilatory control affecting individuals with morbid obesity. Through the pressor effects of chronic hypercapnia and hypoxemia, this syndrome may result in pulmonary hypertension, right heart failure, and massive peripheral edema. We present a case of severe scrotal edema in a 36-year-old male with OSA and obesity-hypoventilation syndrome. A tracheostomy was performed to relieve hypoxemia and led to dramatic improvement of scrotal edema. No scrotal surgery was necessary. Followup at two months showed complete resolution of scrotal edema, improvement in mental status, and normalization of arterial blood gas measurements. This case demonstrates that OSA and obesity-hypoventilation syndrome may present with massive scrotal edema. Furthermore, if OSA is recognized as the cause of right heart failure, and if the apnea is corrected, the resultant improvement in cardiac function may allow reversal of massive peripheral, including scrotal, edema.