Usefulness of Probiotics in the Management of NAFLD: Evidence and Involved Mechanisms of Action from Preclinical and Human Models.

The present review aims at analyzing the current evidence regarding probiotic administration for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) management. Additionally, the involved mechanisms of action modulated by probiotic administration, as well as the eventual limitations of this therapeutic approach and potential alternatives, are discussed. Preclinical studies have demonstrated that the administration of single-strain probiotics and probiotic mixtures effectively prevents diet-induced NAFLD. In both cases, the magnitude of the described effects, as well as the involved mechanisms of action, are comparable, including reduced liver lipid accumulation (due to lipogenesis downregulation and fatty acid oxidation upregulation), recovery of gut microbiota composition and enhanced intestinal integrity. Similar results have also been reported in clinical trials, where the administration of probiotics proved to be effective in the treatment of NAFLD in patients featuring this liver condition. In this case, information regarding the mechanisms of action underlying probiotics-mediated hepatoprotective effects is scarcer (mainly due to the difficulty of liver sample collection). Since probiotics administration represents an increased risk of infection in vulnerable subjects, much attention has been paid to parabiotics and postbiotics, which seem to be effective in the management of several metabolic diseases, and thus represent a suitable alternative to probiotic usage.

Precision nutrition based on phenotypical traits and the (epi)genotype: nutrigenetic and nutrigenomic approaches for obesity care.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The purpose of this article is to rationally review and critically appraise the current knowledge in the most relevant nongenetic and genetic factors influencing obesity predisposition. This information may be translated into the implementation of personalized nutrition approaches involving precision nutrigenetic and nutrigenomic strategies for obesity monitoring and weight management. RECENT FINDINGS: The importance and influence of several nongenetic contributors to obesity onset and individual responses to weight-loss interventions have been highlighted including the role of age, sex or perinatal feeding and others related to an individual's lifestyle and modifiable. Nutrigenetic studies have analysed potential interactions between polymorphisms influencing energy homeostasis/body composition and dietary factors in relation to adiposity phenotypes and therapy responsiveness. A second approach comprises the Nutrigenomic analysis of gene expression modifications in response to the consumption of specific nutrients or dietary bioactive compounds, which may involve epigenetic mechanisms including deoxyribonucleic acid methylation and micro-ribonucleic acid expression profiles. SUMMARY: Taken together, these findings encompass the importance of taking into account up-to-date advances in Nutrigenetic and Nutrigenomic hallmarks, globally analysing the risk of weight gain and related outcomes after following nutrition counselling, this contributing to improve obesity care considering phenotypical traits and the genetic make-up for precision obesity care.

An Overview of Adipose Tissue ACE2 Modulation by Diet and Obesity. Potential Implications in COVID-19 Infection and Severity.

The present review is aimed at analysing the current evidence concerning the potential modulation of obesity and/or diet in adipose tissue ACE2. Additionally, the potential implications of these effects on COVID-19 are also addressed. The results published show that diet and obesity are two factors that effectively influence the expression of Ace2 gene in adipose tissue. However, the shifts in this gene do not always occur in the same direction, nor with the same intensity. Additionally, there is no consensus regarding the implications of increased adipose tissue ACE2 expression in health. Thus, while in some studies a protective role is attributed to ACE2 overexpression, other studies suggest otherwise. Similarly, there is much debate regarding the role played by ACE2 in COVID-19 in terms of degree of infection and disease outcomes. The greater risk of infection that may hypothetically derive from enhanced ACE2 expression is not clear since the functionality of the enzyme seems to be as important as the abundance. Thus, the greater abundance of ACE2 in adipose tissue of obese subjects may be counterbalanced by its lower activation. In addition, a protective role of ACE2 overexpression has also been suggested, associated with the increase in anti-inflammatory factors that it may produce.

Anti-Obesity Effects of Microalgae.

In recent years, microalgae have attracted great interest for their potential applications in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industry as an interesting source of bioactive medicinal products and food ingredients with anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-microbial properties. One potential application for bioactive microalgae compounds is obesity treatment. This review gathers together in vitro and in vivo studies which address the anti-obesity effects of microalgae extracts. The scientific literature supplies evidence supporting an anti-obesity effect of several microalgae: Euglena gracilis, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Spirulina maxima, Spirulina platensis, or Nitzschia laevis. Regarding the mechanisms of action, microalgae can inhibit pre-adipocyte differentiation and reduce de novo lipogenesis and triglyceride (TG) assembly, thus limiting TG accumulation. Increased lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation can also be observed. Finally, microalgae can induce increased energy expenditure via thermogenesis activation in brown adipose tissue, and browning in white adipose tissue. Along with the reduction in body fat accumulation, other hallmarks of individuals with obesity, such as enhanced plasma lipid levels, insulin resistance, diabetes, or systemic low-grade inflammation are also improved by microalgae treatment. Not only the anti-obesity effect of microalgae but also the improvement of several comorbidities, previously observed in preclinical studies, has been confirmed in clinical trials.

Involvement of 5'-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) in the Effects of Resveratrol on Liver Steatosis.

This review focuses on the role of 5'-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in the effects of resveratrol (RSV) and some RSV derivatives on hepatic steatosis. In vitro studies, performed in different hepatic cell models, have demonstrated that RSV is effective in preventing liver TG accumulation by activating AMPK, due to its phosphorylation. These preventive effects have been confirmed in studies conducted in animal models, such as mice and rats, by administering the phenolic compound at the same time as the diet which induces TG accumulation in liver. The literature also includes studies focused on other type of models, such as animals showing alcohol-induced steatosis or even steatosis induced by administering chemical products. In addition to the preventive effects of RSV on hepatic steatosis, other studies have demonstrated that it can alleviate previously developed liver steatosis, thus its role as a therapeutic tool has been proposed. The implication of AMPK in the delipidating effects of RSV in in vivo models has also been demonstrated.

Role of Omentin, Vaspin, Cardiotrophin-1, TWEAK and NOV/CCN3 in Obesity and Diabetes Development.

Adipose tissue releases bioactive mediators called adipokines. This review focuses on the effects of omentin, vaspin, cardiotrophin-1, Tumor necrosis factor-like Weak Inducer of Apoptosis (TWEAK) and nephroblastoma overexpressed (NOV/CCN3) on obesity and diabetes. Omentin is produced by the stromal-vascular fraction of visceral adipose tissue. Obesity reduces omentin serum concentrations and adipose tissue secretion in adults and adolescents. This adipokine regulates insulin sensitivity, but its clinical relevance has to be confirmed. Vaspin is produced by visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissues. Vaspin levels are higher in obese subjects, as well as in subjects showing insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes. Cardiotrophin-1 is an adipokine with a similar structure as cytokines from interleukin-6 family. There is some controversy regarding the regulation of cardiotrophin-1 levels in obese -subjects, but gene expression levels of cardiotrophin-1 are down-regulated in white adipose tissue from diet-induced obese mice. It also shows anti-obesity and hypoglycemic properties. TWEAK is a potential regulator of the low-grade chronic inflammation characteristic of obesity. TWEAK levels seem not to be directly related to adiposity, and metabolic factors play a critical role in its regulation. Finally, a strong correlation has been found between plasma NOV/CCN3 concentration and fat mass. This adipokine improves insulin actions.

Resveratrol-Induced Effects on Body Fat Differ Depending on Feeding Conditions.

Science constantly seeks to identify new molecules that could be used as dietary functional ingredients in the fight against obesity and its co-morbidities. Among them, polyphenols represent a group of molecules of increasing interest. One of the most widely studied polyphenols is resveratrol (trans-3,4',5-trihydroxystilbene), which has been proposed as an "energy restriction mimetic" because it can exert energy restriction-like effects. The aim of this review is to analyze the effects of resveratrol on obesity under different feeding conditions, such as overfeeding, normal feeding, and energy restriction, in animals and humans. The vast majority of the studies reported have addressed the administration of resveratrol to animals alongside an obesogenic diet. Under these experimental conditions usually a decreased body weight amount was found. To date, studies that focus on the effects of resveratrol under normal feeding or energy restriction conditions in animals and humans are scarcer. In these studies no changes in body fat were reported. After analyzing the results obtained under overfeeding, normal feeding, and energy restriction conditions, it can be stated that resveratrol is useful in reducing body fat accumulation, and thus preventing obesity. Nevertheless, for ethical reasons, these results have been obtained in animals. By contrast, there are no evidences showing the usefulness of this phenolic compound in reducing previously accumulated body fat. Consequently, as of yet, there is not scientific support for proposing resveratrol as a new anti-obesity treatment tool.

Comparative effects of viable Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and its heat-inactivated paraprobiotic in the prevention of high-fat high-fructose diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in rats.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most prevalent chronic liver alterations worldwide, being gut microbiota dysbiosis one of the contributing factors to its development. The aim of this research is to compare the potential effects of a viable probiotic (Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG) with those exerted by its heat-inactivated paraprobiotic counterpart in a dietary rodent model of NAFLD. The probiotic administration effectively prevented the hepatic lipid accumulation induced by a high-fat high-fructose diet feeding, as demonstrated by chemical (lower TG content) and histological (lower steatosis grade and lobular inflammation) analyses. This effect was mainly mediated by the downregulation of lipid uptake (FATP2 protein expression) and upregulating liver TG release to bloodstream (MTTP activity) in rats receiving the probiotic. By contrast, the effect of the paraprobiotic preventing diet-induced liver lipid accumulation was milder, and mainly derived from the downregulation of hepatic de novo lipogenesis (SREBP-1c protein expression and FAS activity) and TG assembly (DGAT2 and AQP9 protein expression). The obtained results demonstrate that under these experimental conditions, the effects induced by the administration of viable L. rhamnosus GG preventing liver lipid accumulation in rats fed a diet rich in saturated fat and fructose differ from those induced by its heat-inactivated paraprobiotic counterpart.

Beneficial Effects of Viable and Heat-Inactivated Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Administration on Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Diet-Induced NAFLD in Rats.

Oxidative stress and inflammation are well-known triggers of NAFLD onset and progression. The aim of this study is to compare the potential benefits of a viable probiotic (Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG) and its parabiotic (heat-inactivated) on oxidative stress, inflammation, DNA damage and cell death pathways in the liver of rats featuring diet-induced NAFLD. The consumption of the steatotic diet led to increased final body and liver weights, higher hepatic triacylglycerol content, altered serum transaminase levels and enhanced oxidative and inflammatory status. Administration of the probiotic and the parabiotic partially prevented the body weight increase induced by the steatotic diet, whereas the probiotic caused more effective decreasing hepatic triglyceride content. Sharp but nonstatistically significant decreases in serum transaminase levels were also observed for both treatments. The reduction in antioxidant enzyme activities found in the nontreated animals fed the steatotic diet was partially prevented by both treatments (GPx activity). Similarly, the reductions in nonenzymatic antioxidant protection (GSH content) and total antioxidant capacity (ORAC) found in the nontreated rats were restored by the administration of both treatments. These results show that both viable and heat-inactivated Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG administration partially prevent steatotic diet-induced liver oxidative stress and inflammation induced in rats.

Potential usefulness of Mediterranean diet polyphenols against COVID-19-induced inflammation: a review of the current knowledge.

The Mediterranean diet is a dietary pattern typical of the populations living in the Mediterranean basin during the 50s-60s of the last century. This diet has demonstrated beneficial effects in the prevention of several pathologies such as cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome, or several cancer types, at least in part, due to its antioxidant compounds. Since the COVID-19 pandemic started, different authors have been studying the effects of certain dietary habits on the presence of COVID-19 and its severity, and the Mediterranean diet is one of them. This review gathers data from studies supporting the potential usefulness of the main phenolic compounds present in the Mediterranean diet, based on their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, as preventive/therapeutic agents against COVID-19. The current evidence supports the potential benefits that hydroxytyrosol, resveratrol, flavonols such as quercetin, flavanols like catechins, and flavanones on the order of naringenin could have on COVID-19. This is due to the increase in the synthesis and translocations of Nrf-2, which increases the activity of antioxidant enzymes and thus reduces ROS production, the scavenging of free radicals, and the suppression of the activity of MMP-9, which is involved in the cytokine storm, and the inhibition of NF-κB.

Beneficial Effects of ε-Viniferin on Obesity and Related Health Alterations.

Viniferin is a phenolic compound belonging to the group of stilbenoids. In particular, ε-viniferin is a dimer of resveratrol, found in many plant genders, among which grapes (Vitis vinifera) are a primary source. Due to the fact that ε-viniferin is mainly present in the woody parts of plants, their use as a source of this bioactive compound is a very interesting issue in a circular economy. Both, in vitro studies carried out in pre-adipocytes and mature adipocytes and in vivo studies addressed in mice show that ε-viniferin is able to reduce fat accumulation. Moreover, it prevents the development of some obesity co-morbidities, such as type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemias, hypertension and fatty liver. ε-viniferin can be absorbed orally, but it shows a very low bioavailability. In this scenario, further research on animal models is needed to confirm the effects reported in a great number of studies; to determine which metabolites are involved, including the main one responsible for the biological effects observed and the mechanisms that justify these effects. In a further phase, human studies should be addressed in order to use ε-viniferin as a new tool for obesity management, as a nutraceutical or to be included in functional foods.

Features of Non-Alcoholic Beer on Cardiovascular Biomarkers. Can It Be a Substitute for Conventional Beer?

Numerous studies have revealed the beneficial effects of moderate beer consumption on cardiovascular diseases. However, the presence of alcohol in beer can represent a matter of concern, since alcohol intake poses a risk to some individuals. Additionally, adults who are life-long abstainers should not be encouraged to consume alcohol for health purposes. Consequently, the benefits of beer consumption remain a controversial issue. In this scenario, the present review gathers the reported information concerning the cardiovascular effects of non-alcoholic beer, and makes a comparison between these effects and those of conventional beer. Despite the scarcity of published results to date describing the effects of non-alcoholic beer consumption, the available literature indicates that it is more effective than conventional beer in preventing oxidative stress (lower lipid and protein oxidation), preserving the endothelial function (lower endothelial dysfunction) and inhibiting thrombogenic activity (lowered oxidized LDL). By contrast, conventional beer has shown to induce greater increases in HDL-cholesterol levels (known as a cardiovascular protective factor) compared to non-alcoholic beer. This effect cannot be solely attributed to alcohol content, since the polyphenol content in conventional beer tends to be higher than that found in non-alcoholic beer.

Effects of Resveratrol Administration in Liver Injury Prevention as Induced by an Obesogenic Diet: Role of Ruminococcaceae.

Gut microbiota dysbiosis has been described in several metabolic disruptions, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Administration of resveratrol has been claimed to elicit benefits against NAFLD along with modulating gut microbiota composition. This investigation aims to study the putative mediating role of gut microbiota in the potential hepato-protective effects of resveratrol in a diet-induced NAFLD rat model. The involvement of bacteria from the Ruminococcaceae family in such effects was also addressed. Resveratrol administration resulted in lowered liver weight and serum total and non-HDL cholesterol concentrations, as well as in increased serum HDL cholesterol levels. The administration of this polyphenol also prevented obesogenic diet-induced serum transaminase increases. In addition, histopathological analysis revealed that resveratrol administration ameliorated the dietary-induced liver steatosis and hepatic inflammation. Gut microbiota sequencing showed an inverse relationship between some bacteria from the Ruminococcaceae family and the screened hepatic markers, whereas in other cases the opposite relationship was also found. Interestingly, an interaction was found between UBA-1819 abundance and resveratrol induced liver weight decrease, suggesting that for this marker resveratrol induced effects were greater when the abundance of this bacteria was high, while no actions were found when UBA-1819 abundance was low.

Relationship between changes in microbiota induced by resveratrol and its anti-diabetic effect on type 2 diabetes.

Although a general healthy gut microbiota cannot be defined due to numerous internal and external individual factors, such as sex, age, ethnicity, genetics, environment, diet and drugs affect its composition, certain microbial species and gut microbiota compositions seem to be related to the progression of insulin resistance to type 2 diabetes, as well as the development of microvascular and macrovascular complications of diabetes. The present review aimed at gathering the reported information describing how resveratrol induced changes in microbiota composition can mediate the positive effects of this polyphenol on glucose homeostasis under type 2 diabetic conditions, both in animals and humans. Based on the fact that some changes observed in the gut microbiota of type 2 diabetic animals and patients are reversed by resveratrol treatment, and taking into account that some resveratrol mediated changes in gut microbiota composition are similar to those induced by anti-diabetic drugs such as metformin, it can be proposed that four genera, Alistipes, Allobaculum, Desulfovibrio and Blautia could be involved in the benefits of resveratrol on glycameic control. Nevertheless some limitations are observed in this research field: (a) the number of studies analyzing both the effects of resveratrol on glucose homeostasis and microbiota composition in the same cohort of animals, in order to know the potential involvement of microbiota in the anti-diabetic effects of this phenolic compound, are very scarce and practically inexistent in the case of humans., (b) the studies present inconsistencies concerning the effects of resveratrol on gut microbiota changes, (c) the experimental design used do not allow the researchers to establish a causal relationship between the changes in microbiota and the anti-diabetic effect, in the vast majority of the studies, (d) the knowledge about the role of each type of bacteria on glycaemic control is not sufficient so far.

Current Knowledge on Beetroot Bioactive Compounds: Role of Nitrate and Betalains in Health and Disease.

An increase in the prevalence of noncommunicable chronic diseases has been occurring in recent decades. Among the deaths resulting from these conditions, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) stand out as the main contributors. In this regard, dietary patterns featuring a high content of vegetables and fruits, such as the Mediterranean and the DASH diets, are considered beneficial, and thus have been extensively studied. This has resulted in growing interest in vegetable-derived ingredients and food-supplements that may have potential therapeutic properties. Among these supplements, beetroot juice, which is obtained from the root vegetable Beta vulgaris, has gained much attention. Although a significant part of the interest in beetroot juice is due to its nitrate (NO3-) content, which has demonstrated bioactivity in the cardiovascular system, other ingredients with potential beneficial properties such as polyphenols, pigments and organic acids are also present. In this context, the aim of this review article is to analyze the current knowledge regarding the benefits related to the consumption of beetroot and derived food-supplements. Therefore, this article focuses on nitrate and betalains, which are considered to be the major bioactive compounds present in beetroot, and thus in the derived dietary supplements.

Effects of Pterostilbene on Diabetes, Liver Steatosis and Serum Lipids.

Pterostilbene, a phenolic compound derived from resveratrol, possesses greater bioavailability than its parent compound due to the presence of two methoxyl groups. In this review, the beneficial effects of pterostilbene on diabetes, liver steatosis and dyslipidemia are summarized. Pterostilbene is a useful bioactive compound in preventing type 1 diabetes, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes in animal models. Concerning type 1 diabetes, the main mechanisms described to justify the positive effects of this phenolic compound are increased liver glycogen content and hepatic glucokinase and phosphofructokinase activities, the recovery of pancreatic islet architecture, cytoprotection and a decrease in serum and pancreatic pro-inflammatory cytokines. As for type 2 diabetes, increased liver glucokinase and glucose-6-phosphatase and decreased fructose-1,6-biphosphatase activities are reported. When insulin resistance is induced by diets, a greater activation of insulin signaling cascade has been reported, increased cardiotrophin-1 levels and liver glucokinase and glucose- 6-phosphatase activities, and a decreased fructose-1,6-biphosphatase activity. Data concerning pterostilbene and liver steatosis are scarce so far, but the reduction in oxidative stress induced by pterostilbene may be involved since oxidative stress is related to the progression of steatosis to steatohepatitis. Finally, pterostilbene effectively reduces total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and serum triglyceride levels, while increases HDL-cholesterol in animal models of dyslipidemia.

Gut Microbiota Induced by Pterostilbene and Resveratrol in High-Fat-High-Fructose Fed Rats: Putative Role in Steatohepatitis Onset.

Resveratrol and its 2-methoxy derivative pterostilbene are two phenolic compounds that occur in foodstuffs and feature hepato-protective effects. This study is devoted to analysing and comparing the metabolic effects of pterostilbene and resveratrol on gut microbiota composition in rats displaying NAFLD induced by a diet rich in saturated fat and fructose. The associations among changes induced by both phenolic compounds in liver status and those induced in gut microbiota composition were also analysed. For this purpose, fifty Wistar rats were distributed in five experimental groups: a group of animals fed a standard diet (CC group) and four additional groups fed a high-fat high-fructose diet alone (HFHF group) or supplemented with 15 or 30 mg/kg bw/d of pterostilbene (PT15 and PT30 groups, respectively) or 30 mg/kg bw/d of resveratrol (RSV30 group). The dramatic changes induced by high-fat high-fructose feeding in the gut microbiota were poorly ameliorated by pterostilbene or resveratrol. These results suggest that the specific changes in microbiota composition induced by pterostilbene (increased abundances of Akkermansia and Erysipelatoclostridium, and lowered abundance of Clostridum sensu stricto 1) may not entirely explain the putative preventive effects on steatohepatitis.

Key Aspects in Nutritional Management of COVID-19 Patients.

This review deals with the relationship among nutrition, the immune system, and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The influence of nutrients and bioactive molecules present in foodstuffs on immune system activity, the influence of COVID-19 on the nutritional status of the patients, and the dietary recommendations for hospitalized patients are addressed. Deficient nutritional status is probably due to anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hypoalbuminemia, hypermetabolism, and excessive nitrogen loss. There is limited knowledge regarding the nutritional support during hospital stay of COVID-19 patients. However, nutritional therapy appears as first-line treatment and should be implemented into standard practice. Optimal intake of all nutrients, mainly those playing crucial roles in immune system, should be assured through a diverse and well-balanced diet. Nevertheless, in order to reduce the risk and consequences of infections, the intakes for some micronutrients may exceed the recommended dietary allowances since infections and other stressors can reduce micronutrient status. In the case of critically ill patients, recently published guidelines are available for their nutritional management. Further, several natural bioactive compounds interact with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, the gateway for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Natural bioactive compounds can also reduce the inflammatory response induced by SARS-CoV-2. These compounds are potential beneficial tools in the nutritional management of COVID-19 patients.

Anti-Obesity Effects of Macroalgae.

Macroalgae have attracted great interest for their potential applications in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries as source of bioactive medicinal products and food ingredients. This review gathers data from in vitro and in vivo studies addressing the anti-obesity effects of macroalgae. Great consensus exists in all reported in vitro studies concerning the reduction induced by seaweed extracts in the expression of transcriptional factors controlling adipogenesis. In animals, macroalgae reduced body fat accumulation and prevented other obesity features, such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and fatty liver. These effects are not due to food intake reduction, since few studies have reported such event. Indeed, the effects on metabolic pathways in target tissues/organs seem to play a more relevant role. Macroalgae can reduce de novo lipogenesis, limiting fatty acid availability for triglyceride synthesis in white adipose tissue. This effect has been observed in both cell cultures and adipose tissue from animals treated with macroalgae extracts. In addition, increased fatty acid oxidation and thermogenic capacity, as well as a shift towards healthier gut microbiota composition may contribute to the body fat-lowering effect of macroalgae. Studies in humans are needed to determine whether macroalgae can represent a feasible tool to prevent and/or manage overweight and obesity.

Effect of Wakame and Carob Pod Snacks on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease.

Snacks combining different functional ingredients could represent a useful therapeutic strategy against NAFLD. The present study aimed to analyze the effect of two snack formulations based on carob and wakame flour in the treatment for NAFLD in rats. For this purpose, metabolic syndrome was induced in 50 adult rats by a high-fat high-fructose diet over eight weeks. After this period, rats were fed either normal calorie diets supplemented or not with snack A (1/50 wakame/carob pod) and snack B (1/5 wakame/carob pod) for four additional weeks. After sacrifice, liver composition and serum parameters were analyzed. Different pathways of triacylglycerol metabolism in liver were studied including fatty acid oxidation, fatty acid synthesis, triglyceride assembly and release, fatty acid uptake and glucose uptake. Oxidative stress was also measured. Snack treatment, and mainly B snack, reduced liver triacylglycerol levels by increasing fat oxidation. Moreover, this snack reduced oxidative stress. Therefore, this snack formulation could represent an interesting tool useful for fatty liver treatment.