Significance and amplification methods of the purine salvage pathway in human brain cells.

Previous studies suggest that uric acid or reactive oxygen species, products of xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), may associate with neurodegenerative diseases. However, neither relationship has ever been firmly established. Here, we analyzed human brain samples, obtained under protocols approved by research ethics committees, and found no expression of XOR and only low levels of uric acid in various regions of the brain. In the absence of XOR, hypoxanthine will be preserved and available for incorporation into the purine salvage pathway. To clarify the importance of salvage in the brain, we tested using human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuronal cells. Stable isotope analyses showed that the purine salvage pathway was more effective for ATP synthesis than purine de novo synthesis. Blood uric acid levels were related to the intracellular adenylate pool (ATP + ADP + AMP), and reduced levels of this pool result in lower uric acid levels. XOR inhibitors are related to extracellular hypoxanthine levels available for uptake into the purine salvage pathway by inhibiting the oxidation of hypoxanthine to xanthine and uric acid in various organs where XOR is present and can prevent further decreases in the intracellular adenylate pool under stress. Furthermore, adding precursors of the pentose phosphate pathway enhanced hypoxanthine uptake, indicating that purine salvage is activated by phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate replenishment. These findings resolve previous contradictions regarding XOR products and provide new insights into clinical studies. It is suggested that therapeutic strategies maximizing maintenance of intracellular adenylate levels may effectively treat pathological conditions associated with ischemia and energy depletion.

Allopurinol and oxypurinol differ in their strength and mechanisms of inhibition of xanthine oxidoreductase.

Xanthine oxidoreductase is a metalloenzyme that catalyzes the final steps in purine metabolism by converting hypoxanthine to xanthine and then uric acid. Allopurinol, an analog of hypoxanthine, is widely used as an antigout drug, as xanthine oxidoreductase-mediated metabolism of allopurinol to oxypurinol leads to oxypurinol rotation in the enzyme active site and reduction of the molybdenum Mo(VI) active center to Mo(IV), inhibiting subsequent urate production. However, when oxypurinol is administered directly to a mouse model of hyperuricemia, it yields a weaker urate-lowering effect than allopurinol. To better understand its mechanism of inhibition and inform patient dosing strategies, we performed kinetic and structural analyses of the inhibitory activity of oxypurinol. Our results demonstrated that oxypurinol was less effective than allopurinol both in vivo and in vitro. We show that upon reoxidation to Mo(VI), oxypurinol binding is greatly weakened, and reduction by xanthine, hypoxanthine, or allopurinol is required for reformation of the inhibitor-enzyme complex. In addition, we show oxypurinol only weakly inhibits the conversion of hypoxanthine to xanthine and is therefore unlikely to affect the feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis. Furthermore, we observed weak allosteric inhibition of purine nucleoside phosphorylase by oxypurinol which has potentially adverse effects for patients. Considering these results, we propose the single-dose method currently used to treat hyperuricemia can result in unnecessarily high levels of allopurinol. While the short half-life of allopurinol in blood suggests that oxypurinol is responsible for enzyme inhibition, we anticipate multiple, smaller doses of allopurinol would reduce the total allopurinol patient load.

Structural Analyses of DP-1, a Protein with the Ability To Bind Gold Nanoparticles, by Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy.

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), consisting of metallic gold, are applied in various fields owing to their characteristic physical properties. Collimonas sp. D-25 (D-25) is a Gram-negative bacterium obtained from soil, compost, and other environmental materials in the Akita Prefecture. DP-1 is a water-soluble protein found in D-25 that binds specifically to AuNPs and retains them with high stability. This study aimed to identify the part of DP-1 that interacts with AuNPs and determine its 3D structure in solution using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Peptide fragments obtained by trypsin digestion were examined for their AuNP-binding capacity to determine the key Au-binding domain of DP-1. A fragment consisting of 16 amino acid residues (GHAATPEQYGVVTANK) was identified as the peptide with the highest binding activity. Structural analyses of this peptide indicated that the main chain was elongated, and negatively charged residues in the side chain were exposed on the surface by incorporating AuNPs. These results suggest that DP-1 interacts with AuNPs through negatively charged residues and extended hydrophobic residues for protein-protein interactions. The structural data also provide new insights into biomimetic technologies.

Structural and Functional Analysis of the Amorphous Calcium Carbonate-Binding Protein Paramyosin in the Shell of the Pearl Oyster, Pinctada fucata.

Amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) is an important precursor phase for the formation of aragonite crystals in the shells of Pinctada fucata. To identify the ACC-binding protein in the inner aragonite layer of the shell, extracts from the shell were used in the ACC-binding experiments. Semiquantitative analyses using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed that paramyosin was strongly associated with ACC in the shell. We discovered that paramyosin, a major component of the adductor muscle, was included in the myostracum, which is the microstructure of the shell attached to the adductor muscle. Purified paramyosin accumulates calcium carbonate and induces the prism structure of aragonite crystals, which is related to the morphology of prism aragonite crystals in the myostracum. Nuclear magnetic resonance measurements revealed that the Glu-rich region was bound to ACC. Activity of the Glu-rich region was stronger than that of the Asp-rich region. These results suggest that paramyosin in the adductor muscle is involved in the formation of aragonite prisms in the myostracum.

Structural model for ligand binding and channel opening of an insect gustatory receptor.

Insect gustatory receptors play roles in sensing tastants, such as sugars and bitter substances. We previously demonstrated that the BmGr9 silkworm gustatory receptor is a d-fructose-gated ion channel receptor. However, the molecular mechanism of how d-fructose could initiate channel opening were unclear. Herein, we present a structural model for a channel pore and a d-fructose-binding site in BmGr9. Since the membrane topology and oligomeric state of BmGr9 appeared to be similar to those of an insect odorant receptor coreceptor, Orco, we constructed a structural model of BmGr9 based on the cryo-EM Orco structure. Our site-directed mutagenesis data suggested that the transmembrane region 7 forms channel pore and controls channel gating. This model also suggested that a pocket formed by transmembrane helices 2 to 4 and 6 binds d-fructose. Using mutagenesis experiments in combination with docking simulations, we were able to determine the potent binding mode of d-fructose. Finally, based on these data, we propose a conformational change that leads to channel opening upon d-fructose binding. Taken together, these findings detail the molecular mechanism by which an insect gustatory receptor can be activated by its ligand molecule.

Lactic acid bacteria-derived γ-linolenic acid metabolites are PPARδ ligands that reduce lipid accumulation in human intestinal organoids.

Gut microbiota regulate physiological functions in various hosts, such as energy metabolism and immunity. Lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus plantarum, have a specific polyunsaturated fatty acid saturation metabolism that generates multiple fatty acid species, such as hydroxy fatty acids, oxo fatty acids, conjugated fatty acids, and trans-fatty acids. How these bacterial metabolites impact host physiology is not fully understood. Here, we investigated the ligand activity of lactic acid bacteria-produced fatty acids in relation to nuclear hormone receptors expressed in the small intestine. Our reporter assays revealed two bacterial metabolites of γ-linolenic acid (GLA), 13-hydroxy-cis-6,cis-9-octadecadienoic acid (γHYD), and 13-oxo-cis-6,cis-9-octadecadienoic acid (γKetoD) activated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) more potently than GLA. We demonstrate that both γHYD and γKetoD bound directly to the ligand-binding domain of human PPARδ. A docking simulation indicated that four polar residues (T289, H323, H449, and Y473) of PPARδ donate hydrogen bonds to these fatty acids. Interestingly, T289 does not donate a hydrogen bond to GLA, suggesting that bacterial modification of GLA introducing hydroxy and oxo group determines ligand selectivity. In human intestinal organoids, we determined γHYD and γKetoD increased the expression of PPARδ target genes, enhanced fatty acid ß-oxidation, and reduced intracellular triglyceride accumulation. These findings suggest that γHYD and γKetoD, which gut lactic acid bacteria could generate, are naturally occurring PPARδ ligands in the intestinal tract and may improve lipid metabolism in the human intestine.

A single amino acid substitution alters the vanillylamine synthesis activity of Capsicum pAMT.

Some Capsicum synthesize a unique pungent alkaloid called capsaicin in their fruits. In the synthetic pathway of capsaicin, vanillylamine is produced from vanillin in a reaction catalyzed by a putative aminotransferase (pAMT). Therefore, the capsaicinoids content in the fruits is thought to partially depend on the characteristics of pAMT. Comparing Yume-matsuri (yume), C. annuum variety, and red habanero (RH), C. chinense variety, the vanillylamine synthesis activity of the placental extract was higher in yume than in RH. When each recombinant pAMT (rpAMT) was generated using the Escherichia coli expression system and their activities were compared, yume rpAMT synthesized 14-fold more vanillylamine than RH rpAMT. The amino acid sequence of yume and RH pAMT deduced from the cDNAs revealed that only 7 of 459 residues differed. When a single amino acid residue-substituted rpAMT was generated in which the 56th amino acid was swapped with one other, the amount of vanillylamine synthesis of yume and RH rpAMTs was inverted. Furthermore, it was suggested that the 56th amino acid contributed to the affinity for the coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate. Differences in the vanillylamine synthesis activity of pAMT may also lead to differences in the amount of capsaicin synthesis that accumulates in the fruit. Since capsaicin is a compound with commercial value, this finding may provide new insights into the creation of a variety that can synthesize more capsaicin.

Dispersion Function of a Protein, DP-1, Identified in Collimonas sp. D-25, for the Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles.

Collimonas sp. (D-25), found in the soil of Akita Prefecture, is a gram-negative bacterium with the ability to synthesize gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). During the synthesis of AuNPs, one specific protein (DP-1) was found to have disappeared in the sonicated solution of the bacterium. Recombinant DP-1 (rDP-1) from Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) was used to study the effect of DP-1 on the synthesis of AuNPs. AuNPs synthesized with rDP-1 result in small, stabilized nanoparticles. AuNPs synthesized by DP-1 retained the stability of both the dispersion and nano-size particles under high salt concentrations. Isothermal titration calorimetry was employed to investigate the bonding ratio of rDP-1 to AuNPs. Several thousand rDP-1 proteins are attached to the surface of an AuNP to form a protein corona containing multiple layers. These results suggest that DP-1 obtained from D-25 has a size and stability control function during AuNP synthesis.

Oxidative deamination of lysine residues by polyphenols generates an equilibrium of aldehyde and 2-piperidinol products.

Polyphenols, especially catechol-type polyphenols, exhibit lysyl oxidase-like activity and mediate oxidative deamination of lysine residues in proteins. Previous studies have shown that polyphenol-mediated oxidative deamination of lysine residues can be associated with altered electrical properties of proteins and increased crossreactivity with natural immunoglobulin M antibodies. This interaction suggested that oxidized proteins could act as innate antigens and elicit an innate immune response. However, the structural basis for oxidatively deaminated lysine residues remains unclear. In the present study, to establish the chemistry of lysine oxidation, we characterized oxidation products obtained via incubation of the lysine analog N-biotinyl-5-aminopentylamine with eggshell membranes containing lysyl oxidase and identified a unique six-membered ring 2-piperidinol derivative equilibrated with a ring-open product (aldehyde) as the major product. By monitoring these aldehyde-2-piperidinol products, we evaluated the lysyl oxidase-like activity of polyphenols. We also observed that this reaction was mediated by some polyphenols, especially o-diphenolic-type polyphenols, in the presence of copper ions. Interestingly, the natural immunoglobulin M monoclonal antibody recognized these aldehyde-2-piperidinol products as an innate epitope. These findings establish the existence of a dynamic equilibrium of oxidized lysine and provide important insights into the chemopreventive function of dietary polyphenols for chronic diseases.

Purification, crystallization and X-ray analysis of Pf-SCP (sarcoplasmic Ca-binding protein), related to storage and transport of calcium in mantle of Pinctada fucata.

Pf-SCP, a 21 kDa protein with two EF-hand motifs and a phosphorylation site, was identified from mantle tissue and binds to calcium ions and transports calcium components from cell to the shell of Pinctada fucata. To reveal the molecular basis of the calcium binding activity of Pf-SCP, we expressed the recombinant protein of full-length Pf-SCP in Escherichia coli. Recombinant Pf-SCP (rPf-SCP) purified by Ni affinity chromatography and size exclusion chromatography appeared as a single band on SDS-PAGE. The circular dichroism spectroscopy showed that the α-helix content decreased when rPf-SCP interacted with both calcium ions and calcium carbonate. Western blotting and immunostaining verified the Pf-SCP expression in the shell and localization most in the mantle epithelial cells. To further understand the structural and functional regulation of Pf-SCP by calcium ions and calcium carbonate, the crystallization experiments of rPf-SCP in the presence of calcium ions were performed. A crystal of rPf-SCP obtained in the presence of calcium ions diffracted X-rays up to a resolution of 1.8 Å. The space group of the crystal is C2 with unit cell parameters of a = 96.828 Å, b = 55.906 Å, c = 102.14 Å and ß = 90.009°, indicating that three molecules of rPf-SCP are contained in an asymmetric unit as estimated at the value of the Matthews coefficient. These results suggest that Pf-SCP may play a role in calcium ions transportation and shell mineralization by concentrating calcium ions inside the mantle epithelial cells and interacting with calcium carbonate molecules.

Application of 2,2'-dipyridyl disulfide-mediated thiazolidine ring-opening reaction to glycoprotein synthesis: Total chemical synthesis of evasin-3.

Thiazolidine ring-opening reaction is one of the key steps in protein chemical synthesis via sequential native chemical ligation strategy. We recently developed a novel thiazolidine ring-opening reaction with 2,2'-dipyridyl disulfide (DPDS). In order to investigate the applicability of this reaction to glycoprotein synthesis, we synthesized evasin-3, a cysteine-rich glycoprotein with chemokine-binding ability originally found in tick saliva. The sequence of evasin-3 was divided into three segments, and these segments were separately synthesized with the ordinary solid-phase peptide synthesis method. After the first ligation of middle and C-terminal segments, thiazolidine used as a protecting group of Cys residue at the N-terminus of the middle segment was converted to Cys with DPDS. In this thiazolidine ring-opening reaction, DPDS treatment did not affect the N-linked glycan moiety. After the second ligation with the N-terminal segment and the refolding reaction, evasin-3 could be obtained in good yield. The synthetic evasin-3 showed the binding ability specifically to CXCL chemokines. These results clearly indicate that this DPDS method is useful for glycoprotein synthesis.

Rosmarinic Acid and Sodium Citrate Have a Synergistic Bacteriostatic Effect against Vibrio Species by Inhibiting Iron Uptake.

BACKGROUND: New strategies are needed to combat multidrug-resistant bacteria. The restriction of iron uptake by bacteria is a promising way to inhibit their growth. We aimed to suppress the growth of Vibrio bacterial species by inhibiting their ferric ion-binding protein (FbpA) using food components. METHODS: Twenty spices were selected for the screening of FbpA inhibitors. The candidate was applied to antibacterial tests, and the mechanism was further studied. RESULTS: An active compound, rosmarinic acid (RA), was screened out. RA binds competitively and more tightly than Fe3+ to VmFbpA, the FbpA from V. metschnikovii, with apparent KD values of 8 µM vs. 17 µM. Moreover, RA can inhibit the growth of V. metschnikovii to one-third of the control at 1000 µM. Interestingly, sodium citrate (SC) enhances the growth inhibition effect of RA, although SC only does not inhibit the growth. The combination of RA/SC completely inhibits the growth of not only V. metschnikovii at 100/100 µM but also the vibriosis-causative pathogens V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus, at 100/100 and 1000/100 µM, respectively. However, RA/SC does not affect the growth of Escherichia coli. CONCLUSIONS: RA/SC is a potential bacteriostatic agent against Vibrio species while causing little damage to indigenous gastrointestinal bacteria.

Characterization of the chalky layer-derived EGF-like domain-containing protein (CgELC) in the pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas.

The shells of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas contain calcite crystals with three types of microstructures: prismatic, chalky, and foliated layers. Many shell matrix proteins were annotated from the shells of C. gigas; however, it is unclear which SMPs play important roles in their shell mineralization. The matrix proteins have never been reported from the chalky layer. In this study, we identified a chalky layer-derived EGF-like domain-containing protein (CgELC) from the chalky layer of C. gigas shells. The gene sequence of the CgELC was encoded under CGI_ 10,017,544 of the C. gigas genome database. Only peptide fragments in the N-terminal region of CGI_ 10,017,544 were detected by LC-MS/MS analyses, suggesting that CGI_ 10,017,544 was digested at the predicted protease digestion dibasic site by post-translational modification to become a mature CgELC protein. We produced three types of CgELC recombinant proteins, namely, the full length CgELC, as well as the N-terminal and C-terminal parts of CgELC (CgELC-N or -C, respectively), for in vitro crystallization experiments. In the presence of these recombinant proteins, the aggregation of polycrystalline calcite was observed. Some fibrous organic components seemed to be incorporated into the calcite crystals in the presence of the r-CgELC protein. We also noted different features in the crystallization between CgELC-N and CgELC-C; some crystals were inhibited crystal plane formation and contained many columnar prisms inside the crystals (CgELC-N) and formed numerous holes on their surfaces (CgELC-C). These results suggest that CgELC is involved in crystal aggregation and incorporated into calcite crystals.

Apolipoprotein E binds to and reduces serum levels of DNA-mimicking, pyrrolated proteins.

Lysine N-pyrrolation, converting lysine residues to Nϵ-pyrrole-l-lysine, is a recently discovered post-translational modification. This naturally occurring reaction confers electrochemical properties onto proteins that potentially produce an electrical mimic to DNA and result in specificity toward DNA-binding molecules such as anti-DNA autoantibodies. The discovery of this unique covalent protein modification provides a rationale for establishing the molecular mechanism and broad functional significance of the formation and regulation of Nϵ-pyrrole-l-lysine-containing proteins. In this study, we used microbeads coupled to pyrrolated or nonpyrrolated protein to screen for binding activities of human serum-resident nonimmunoglobin proteins to the pyrrolated proteins. This screen identified apolipoprotein E (apoE) as a protein that innately binds the DNA-mimicking proteins in serum. Using an array of biochemical assays, we observed that the pyrrolated proteins bind to the N-terminal domain of apoE and that oligomeric apoE binds these proteins better than does monomeric apoE. Employing surface plasmon resonance and confocal microscopy, we further observed that apoE deficiency leads to significant accumulation of pyrrolated serum albumin and is associated with an enhanced immune response. These results, along with the observation that apoE facilitates the binding of pyrrolated proteins to cells, suggest that apoE may contribute to the clearance of pyrrolated serum proteins. Our findings uncover apoE as a binding target of pyrrolated proteins, providing a key link connecting covalent protein modification, lipoprotein metabolism, and innate immunity.

Structural basis of different substrate preferences of two old yellow enzymes from yeasts in the asymmetric reduction of enone compounds.

Old yellow enzymes (OYEs) are potential targets of protein engineering for useful biocatalysts because of their excellent asymmetric reductions of enone compounds. Two OYEs from different yeast strains, Candida macedoniensis AKU4588 OYE (CmOYE) and Pichia sp. AKU4542 OYE (PsOYE), have a sequence identity of 46%, but show different substrate preferences; PsOYE shows 3.4-fold and 39-fold higher catalytic activities than CmOYE toward ketoisophorone and (4S)-phorenol, respectively. To gain insights into structural basis of their different substrate preferences, we have solved a crystal structure of PsOYE, and compared its catalytic site structure with that of CmOYE, revealing the catalytic pocket of PsOYE is wider than that of CmOYE due to different positions of Phe246 (PsOYE)/Phe250 (CmOYE) in static Loop 5. This study shows a significance of 3D structural information to explain the different substrate preferences of yeast OYEs which cannot be understood from their amino acid sequences. Abbreviations: OYE: Old yellow enzymes, CmOYE: Candida macedoniensis AKU4588 OYE, PsOYE: Pichia sp. AKU4542 OYE.

Treatment of rat congenital diaphragmatic hernia with sildenafil and NS-304, selexipag's active compound, at the pseudoglandular stage improves lung vasculature.

Patients with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) often suffer from severe pulmonary hypertension, and the choice of current vasodilator therapy is mostly based on trial and error. Because pulmonary vascular abnormalities are already present early during development, we performed a study to modulate these pulmonary vascular changes at an early stage during gestation. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with nitrofen at day 9.5 of gestation (E9.5) to induce CDH in the offspring, and subsequently, the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor sildenafil and/or the novel prostaglandin-I receptor agonist selexipag (active compound NS-304) were administered from E17.5 until E20.5. The clinical relevant start of the treatment corresponds to week 20 of gestation in humans, when CDH is usually detected by ultrasound. CDH pups showed increased density of air saccules that was reverted after the use of only sildenafil. The pulmonary vascular wall was thickened, and right ventricular hypertrophy was present in the CDH group and improved both after single treatment with sildenafil or selexipag, whereas the combination therapy with both compounds did not have additive value. In conclusion, antenatal treatment with sildenafil improved airway morphogenesis and pulmonary vascular development, whereas selexipag only acted positively on pulmonary vascular development. The combination of both compounds did not act synergistically, probably because of a decreased efficiency of both compounds caused by cytochrome- P450 3A4 interaction and induction. These new insights create important possibilities for future treatment of pulmonary vascular abnormalities in CDH patients already in the antenatal period of life.

Comparison of physiological functions of antagonistic insulin-like peptides, INS-23 and INS-18, in Caenorhabditis elegans.

In Caenorhabditis elgans, insulin-like peptides have significant roles in modulating larval diapause and adult lifespan via the insulin/IGF-1 signaling (IIS) pathway. Although 40 insulin-like peptides (ILPs) have been identified, it remains unknown how ILPs act as either agonists or antagonists for their sole receptor, DAF-2. Here we found 1) INS-23 functions as an antagonistic ILP to promote larval diapause through the IIS pathway like a DAF-2 antagonist, INS-18, 2) INS-23 and INS-18 have similar biochemical functions. In addition, our molecular modeling suggests that INS-23 and INS-18 have characteristic insertions in the B-domain, which are crucial for the recognition of the insulin receptor, when compared with DAF-2 agonists. These characteristic insertions in the B-domain of INS-23 and INS-18 would modulate their intermolecular interactions with the DAF-2 receptor, which may lead these molecules to act as antagonistic ligands. Our study provides new insight into the function and structure of ILPs.

A class-A GPCR solubilized under high hydrostatic pressure retains its ligand binding ability.

The effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) on the solubilization of a class-A G protein-coupled receptor, the silkmoth pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide receptor (PBANR), was investigated. PBANR was expressed in expresSF+ insect cells as a C-terminal fusion protein with EGFP. The membrane fraction was subjected to HHP treatment (200MPa) at room temperature for 1-16h in the presence of 0-2.0% (w/v) n-dodecyl-ß-D-maltopyranoside (DDM). The solubilization yield of PBANR-EGFP in the presence of 0.6% (w/v) DDM increased to ~1.5-fold after 1h HHP treatment. Fluorescence-detection size-exclusion chromatography demonstrated that the PBANR-EGFP ligand binding ability was retained after HHP-mediated solubilization. The PBANR-EGFP solubilized with 1.0% DDM under HHP at room temperature for 6h retained ligand binding ability, whereas solubilization in the absence of HHP treatment resulted in denaturation.

Insight into the transition between the open and closed conformations of Thermus thermophilus carboxypeptidase.

Carboxypeptidase cleaves the C-terminal amino acid residue from proteins and peptides. Here, we report the functional and structural characterizations of carboxypeptidase belonging to the M32 family from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus thermophilus HB8 (TthCP). TthCP exhibits a relatively broad specificity for both hydrophilic (neutral and basic) and hydrophobic (aliphatic and aromatic) residues at the C-terminus and shows optimal activity in the temperature range of 75-80 °C and in the pH range of 6.8-7.2. Enzyme activity was significantly enhanced by cobalt or cadmium and was moderately inhibited by Tris at 25 °C. We also determined the crystal structure of TthCP at 2.6 Å resolution. Two dimer types of TthCP are present in the crystal. One type consists of two subunits in different states, open and closed, with a Cα RMSD value of 2.2 Å; the other type consists of two subunits in the same open state. This structure enables us to compare the open and closed states of an M32 carboxypeptidase. The TthCP subunit can be divided into two domains, L and S, which are separated by a substrate-binding groove. The L and S domains in the open state are almost identical to those in the closed state, with Cα RMSD values of 0.84 and 0.53 Å, respectively, suggesting that the transition between the open and closed states proceeds with a large hinge-bending motion. The superimposition between the closed states of TthCP and BsuCP, another M32 family member, revealed that most putative substrate-binding residues in the grooves are oriented in the same direction.

REFOLDdb: a new and sustainable gateway to experimental protocols for protein refolding.

BACKGROUND: More than 7000 papers related to "protein refolding" have been published to date, with approximately 300 reports each year during the last decade. Whilst some of these papers provide experimental protocols for protein refolding, a survey in the structural life science communities showed a necessity for a comprehensive database for refolding techniques. We therefore have developed a new resource - "REFOLDdb" that collects refolding techniques into a single, searchable repository to help researchers develop refolding protocols for proteins of interest. RESULTS: We based our resource on the existing REFOLD database, which has not been updated since 2009. We redesigned the data format to be more concise, allowing consistent representations among data entries compared with the original REFOLD database. The remodeled data architecture enhances the search efficiency and improves the sustainability of the database. After an exhaustive literature search we added experimental refolding protocols from reports published 2009 to early 2017. In addition to this new data, we fully converted and integrated existing REFOLD data into our new resource. REFOLDdb contains 1877 entries as of March 17th, 2017, and is freely available at http://p4d-info.nig.ac.jp/refolddb/ . CONCLUSION: REFOLDdb is a unique database for the life sciences research community, providing annotated information for designing new refolding protocols and customizing existing methodologies. We envisage that this resource will find wide utility across broad disciplines that rely on the production of pure, active, recombinant proteins. Furthermore, the database also provides a useful overview of the recent trends and statistics in refolding technology development.