The inhibitory effect of DIF-3 on polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid-induced innate immunity activation in human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells.

For the treatment and prevention of autoinflammatory diseases, it is essential to develop the drug, regulating the innate immune system. Although differentiation-inducing factor (DIF) derivatives, extracted from the cellular slime mold, Dictyostelium discoideum, exhibit immunomodulatory effects, their effects on the regulation of innate immunity in brain are unknown. In this study, we used the human cerebral microvascular endothelial cell line, hCMEC/D3, to investigate the effects of DIF derivatives on the generation of C-X-C motif chemokine (CXCL) 10 and interferon (IFN)-ß induced by polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly IC). DIF-3 (1-10 µM), but not DIF-1 and DIF-2, dose-dependently inhibited the biosynthesis of not only CXCL10 but also CXCL16 and C-C motif chemokine 2 induced by poly IC. DIF-3 also strongly decreased IFN-ß mRNA expression and protein release from the cells induced by poly IC through the prohibition of p65, a subtype of NF-ĸB, not interferon regulatory transcription factor 3 phosphorylation. In the docking simulation study, we confirmed that DIF-3 had a high affinity to p65. These results suggest that DIF-3 regulates the innate immune system by inhibiting TLR3/IFN-ß signaling axis through the NF-ĸB phosphorylation inhibition.

Elucidation of the inhibitory effect of (+)-hopeaphenol on polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid-induced innate immunity activation in human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells.

Drug development for regulating the innate immune system is important for the prevention and treatment of autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases. In this context, we investigated the effect of resveratrol derivatives on the inflammatory reactions in the brain. Resveratrol, which can be found in Vitis plants in the form of oligomers, exhibits neuroprotective effects; however, its regulatory effects on innate immunity are still unclear. We examined the effects of (+)-hopeaphenol, a resveratrol tetramer, and its derivatives on the polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly IC)-induced production of interferon (IFN)-ß and C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) in the cultured human cerebral microvascular endothelial cell line hCMEC/D3. (+)-Hopeaphenol (1-10 µM) inhibited the poly IC-induced production of not only CXCL10 but also retinoic acid-inducible gene-I in a dose-dependent manner and significantly reduced the poly IC-induced IFN-ß gene expression and protein release from hCMEC/D3 cells by inhibiting the phosphorylation of p65 but not that of the interferon regulatory transcription factor IRF3. A docking study indicated a high affinity of (+)-hopeaphenol for p65. These results suggest that (+)-hopeaphenol can regulate the innate immune system by inhibiting the poly IC/IFN-ß/CXCL10 signaling axis via suppression of the phosphorylation of the transcription factor NF-ĸB.

Identification of Celastramycin as a Novel Therapeutic Agent for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension.

RATIONALE: Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is characterized by enhanced proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) accompanying increased production of inflammatory factors and adaptation of the mitochondrial metabolism to a hyperproliferative state. However, all the drugs in clinical use target pulmonary vascular dilatation, which may not be effective for patients with advanced PAH. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to discover a novel drug for PAH that inhibits PASMC proliferation. METHODS AND RESULTS: We screened 5562 compounds from original library using high-throughput screening system to discover compounds which inhibit proliferation of PASMCs from patients with PAH (PAH-PASMCs). We found that celastramycin, a benzoyl pyrrole-type compound originally found in a bacteria extract, inhibited the proliferation of PAH-PASMCs in a dose-dependent manner with relatively small effects on PASMCs from healthy donors. Then, we made 25 analogs of celastramycin and selected the lead compound, which significantly inhibited cell proliferation of PAH-PASMCs and reduced cytosolic reactive oxygen species levels. Mechanistic analysis demonstrated that celastramycin reduced the protein levels of HIF-1α (hypoxia-inducible factor 1α), which impairs aerobic metabolism, and κB (nuclear factor-κB), which induces proinflammatory signals, in PAH-PASMCs, leading to reduced secretion of inflammatory cytokine. Importantly, celastramycin treatment reduced reactive oxygen species levels in PAH-PASMCs with increased protein levels of Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2), a master regulator of cellular response against oxidative stress. Furthermore, celastramycin treatment improved mitochondrial energy metabolism with recovered mitochondrial network formation in PAH-PASMCs. Moreover, these celastramycin-mediated effects were regulated by ZFC3H1 (zinc finger C3H1 domain-containing protein), a binding partner of celastramycin. Finally, celastramycin treatment ameliorated pulmonary hypertension in 3 experimental animal models, accompanied by reduced inflammatory changes in the lungs. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that celastramycin ameliorates pulmonary hypertension, reducing excessive proliferation of PAH-PASMCs with less inflammation and reactive oxygen species levels, and recovered mitochondrial energy metabolism. Thus, celastramycin is a novel drug for PAH that targets antiproliferative effects on PAH-PASMCs.

Dictyostelium Differentiation-Inducing Factor-1 Promotes Glucose Uptake, at Least in Part, via an AMPK-Dependent Pathway in Mouse 3T3-L1 Cells.

Differentiation-inducing factor-1 (DIF-1) is a chlorinated alkylphenone (a polyketide) found in the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum. DIF-1 and its derivative, DIF-1(3M) promote glucose consumption in vitro in mammalian cells and in vivo in diabetic rats; they are expected to be the leading antiobesity and antidiabetes compounds. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the actions of DIF-1 and DIF-1(3M). In isolated mouse liver mitochondria, these compounds at 2-20 µM promoted oxygen consumption in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting that they act as mitochondrial uncouplers, whereas CP-DIF-1 (another derivative of DIF-1) at 10-20 µM had no effect. In confluent mouse 3T3-L1 fibroblasts, DIF-1 and DIF-1(3M) but not CP-DIF-1 induced phosphorylation (and therefore activation) of AMP kinase (AMPK) and promoted glucose consumption and metabolism. The DIF-induced glucose consumption was reduced by compound C (an AMPK inhibitor) or AMPK knock down. These data suggest that DIF-1 and DIF-1(3M) promote glucose uptake, at least in part, via an AMPK-dependent pathway in 3T3-L1 cells, whereas cellular metabolome analysis revealed that DIF-1 and DIF-1(3M) may act differently at least in part.

Autophagic control of listeria through intracellular innate immune recognition in drosophila.

Autophagy, an evolutionally conserved homeostatic process for catabolizing cytoplasmic components, has been linked to the elimination of intracellular pathogens during mammalian innate immune responses. However, the mechanisms underlying cytoplasmic infection-induced autophagy and the function of autophagy in host survival after infection with intracellular pathogens remain unknown. Here we report that in drosophila, recognition of diaminopimelic acid-type peptidoglycan by the pattern-recognition receptor PGRP-LE was crucial for the induction of autophagy and that autophagy prevented the intracellular growth of Listeria monocytogenes and promoted host survival after this infection. Autophagy induction occurred independently of the Toll and IMD innate signaling pathways. Our findings define a pathway leading from the intracellular pattern-recognition receptors to the induction of autophagy to host defense.

Two New Terpenes Isolated from Dictyostelium Cellular Slime Molds.

We report a protoilludane-type sesquiterpene, mucoroidiol, and a geranylated bicyclogermacranol, firmibasiol, isolated from Dictyostelium cellular slime molds. The methanol extracts of the fruiting bodies of cellular slime molds were separated by chromatographic methods to give these compounds. Their structures have been established by several spectral means. Mucoroidiol and firmibasiol are the first examples of more modified and oxidized terpenoids isolated from cellular slime molds. Mucoroidiol showed moderate osteoclast-differentiation inhibitory activity despite demonstrating very weak cell-proliferation inhibitory activity. Therefore, cellular slime molds produce considerably diverse secondary metabolites, and they are promising sources of new natural product chemistry.

Construction of a Meroterpenoid-Like Compounds Library Based on Diversity-Enhanced Extracts.

The structural diversity of natural products and their derivatives have long contributed to the development of new drugs. However, the difficulty in obtaining compounds bearing skeletally novel structures has recently led to a decline of pharmaceutical research into natural products. This paper reports the construction of a meroterpenoid-like library containing 25 compounds with diverse molecular scaffolds obtained from diversity-enhanced extracts. This method constitutes an approach for increasing the chemical diversity of natural-product-like compounds by combining natural product chemistry and diversity-oriented synthesis. Extensive pharmacological screening of the library revealed promising compounds for anti-osteoporotic and anti-lymphoma/leukemia drugs. This result indicates that the use of diversity-enhanced extracts is an effective methodology for producing chemical libraries for the purpose of drug discovery.

Use of plant hormones to activate silent polyketide biosynthetic pathways in Arthrinium sacchari, a fungus isolated from a spider.

Plant hormones were evaluated for their ability to activate fungal secondary metabolite production. Three synthetic cytokinins, kinetin, 6-benzylaminopurine, and forchlorfenuron, showed remarkable enhancement of the production of aromatic polyketides derived from emodin in a fungus, Arthrinium sacchari, and allowed us to isolate a new polyketide. Furthermore, we firstly demonstrated the potential of plant hormones to activate a wide range of fungal secondary metabolite production processes.

Isolation, Synthesis, and Biological Activity of Chlorinated Alkylresorcinols from Dictyostelium Cellular Slime Molds.

Eight chlorinated alkylresorcinols, monochasiol A-H (1-8), were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Dictyostelium monochasioides. Compounds 1-8 were synthesized to confirm their structures and to obtain sufficient material for performing biological tests. Monochasiol A (1) selectively inhibited the concanavalin A-induced interleukin-2 production in Jurkat cells, a human T lymphocyte cell line. Monochasiols were biogenetically synthesized by the combination of biosynthetic enzymes relating to the principal polyketides, MPBD and DIF-1, produced by Dictyostelium discoideum.

Biological Activities of Novel Derivatives of Differentiation-Inducing Factor 3 from Dictyostelium discoideum.

Differentiation-inducing factor-3 (DIF-3; 1-(3-chloro-2,6-dihydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)hexan-1-one), which is found in the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum, is a potential candidate compound for the development of new medicines; DIF-3 and its derivatives possess several beneficial biological activities, including anti-tumor, anti-Trypanosoma cruzi, and immunoregulatory effects. To assess the relationship between the biological activities of DIF-3 and its chemical structure, particularly in regard to its alkoxy group and the length of the alkyl chains at the acyl group, we synthesized two derivatives of DIF-3, 1-(3-chloro-2,6-dihydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)octan-1-one (DIF-3(+3)) and 1-(3-chloro-2,6-dihydroxy-4-butoxyphenyl)-hexan-1-one (Hex-DIF-3), and investigated their biological activities in vitro. At micro-molar levels, DIF-3(+3) and Hex-DIF-3 exhibited strong anti-proliferative effects in tumor cell cultures, but their anti-T. cruzi activities at 1 µM in vitro were not as strong as those of other known DIF derivatives. In addition, Hex-DIF-3 at 5 µM significantly suppressed mitogen-induced interleukin-2 production in vitro in Jurkat T cells. These results suggest that DIF-3(+3) and Hex-DIF-3 are promising leads for the development of anti-cancer and immunosuppressive agents.

The Role of the Phylogenetically Conserved Cochaperone Protein Droj2/DNAJA3 in NF-κB Signaling.

The NF-κB pathway is a phylogenetically conserved signaling pathway with a central role in inflammatory and immune responses. Here we demonstrate that a cochaperone protein, Droj2/DNAJA3, is involved in the activation of canonical NF-κB signaling in flies and in human cultured cells. Overexpression of Droj2 induced the expression of an antimicrobial peptide in Drosophila. Conversely, Droj2 knockdown resulted in reduced expression of antimicrobial peptides and higher susceptibility to Gram-negative bacterial infection in flies. Similarly, Toll-like receptor-stimulated IκB phosphorylation and NF-κB activation were suppressed by DNAJA3 knockdown in HEK293 cells. IκB kinase overexpression-induced NF-κB phosphorylation was also compromised in DNAJA3 knockdown cells. Our study reveals a novel conserved regulator of the NF-κB pathway acting at the level of IκB phosphorylation.

Development of a Terpenoid Alkaloid-like Compound Library Based on the Humulene Skeleton.

Many natural terpenoid alkaloid conjugates show biological activity because their structures contain both sp3 -rich terpenoid scaffolds and nitrogen-containing alkaloid scaffolds. However, their biosynthesis utilizes a limited set of compounds as sources of the terpenoid moiety. The production of terpenoid alkaloids containing various types of terpenoid moiety may provide useful, chemically diverse compound libraries for drug discovery. Herein, we report the construction of a library of terpenoid alkaloid-like compounds based on Lewis-acid-catalyzed transannulation of humulene diepoxide and subsequent sequential olefin metathesis. Cheminformatic analysis quantitatively showed that the synthesized terpenoid alkaloid-like compound library has a high level of three-dimensional-shape diversity. Extensive pharmacological screening of the library has led to the identification of promising compounds for the development of antihypolipidemic drugs. Therefore, the synthesis of terpenoid alkaloid-like compound libraries based on humulene is well suited to drug discovery. Synthesis of terpenoid alkaloid-like compounds based on several natural terpenoids is an effective strategy for producing chemically diverse libraries.

Epigenetic stimulation of polyketide production in Chaetomium cancroideum by an NAD(+)-dependent HDAC inhibitor.

Exposure of the fungus Chaetomium cancroideum to an NAD(+)-dependent HDAC inhibitor, nicotinamide, enhanced the production of aromatic and branched aliphatic polyketides, which allowed us to isolate new secondary metabolites, chaetophenol G and cancrolides A and B. Their structures were determined using spectroscopic analyses, and their absolute configuration was elucidated by electronic circular dichroism (ECD), vibrational circular dichroism (VCD), and chemical transformations. Biosynthesis of the branched aliphatic polyketide skeletons in cancrolides A and B was evidenced by conducting a feeding experiment using compounds labeled with a (13)C stable isotope.

1-Methyl-2-undecyl-4(1H)-quinolone, a derivative of quinolone alkaloid evocarpine, attenuates high phosphate-induced calcification of human aortic valve interstitial cells by inhibiting phosphate cotransporter PiT-1.

An abnormally high serum phosphate level induces calcific aortic stenosis (CAS), which is characterized by ectopic valve calcification and stenosis of the orifice area. Inhibition of ectopic calcification is a critical function of any internal medical therapy for CAS disease. The aim of the present study was to investigate the inhibitory effects of several derivatives of evocarpine, methanolic extracts from the fruits of Evodia rutaecarpa Bentham (Japanese name: Go-Shu-Yu) on the high phosphate-induced calcification of human aortic valve interstitial cells (HAVICs) obtained from patients with CAS. High phosphate (3.2 mM) concentrations significantly increased the calcification of HAVICs after 7 days of culture. This calcification was completely inhibited in the presence of sodium phosphonoformate (PFA), a selective inhibitor of the type III sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter (PiT-1). PiT-1 contributes to phosphate uptake, resulting in calcification. 1-Methyl-2-undecyl-4(1H)-quinolone (MUQ; 30-300 nM), but not evocarpine or its derivatives dihydroevocarpine and 1-methyl-2-nonyl-4(1H)-quinolone, inhibited the high phosphate-induced HAVICs calcification in a concentration-dependent manner. Although all of the evocarpine derivatives attenuated alkaline phosphatase activity, only MUQ also decreased PiT-1 gene expression with cellular PiT-1 protein diminution. These results suggest that MUQ mitigated high phosphate-induced HAVICs calcification by inhibiting PiT-1 gene expression.

Design and Synthesis of Structure-Simplified Derivatives of Gonytolide for the Promotion of Innate Immune Responses.

Gonytolide A (1), a dimeric chromanone substituted with the γ-lactone, shows promoting activity of innate immune responses. However, biological studies on this compound have been limited by the low amounts of 1 available from natural resources and the difficulty of its synthesis. In this study, we designed and synthesized structure-simplified gonytolide derivatives. Bischromone 10 and biflavone 13 both promoted the mammalian TNF-α signaling pathway and Drosophila innate immunity. They did not contain a chiral center and were easy to synthesize. Hence, they can be used as lead compounds for a new type of immunostimulating drugs and as research reagents.

Derivatives of Dictyostelium differentiation-inducing factors inhibit lysophosphatidic acid-stimulated migration of murine osteosarcoma LM8 cells.

Osteosarcoma is a common metastatic bone cancer that predominantly develops in children and adolescents. Metastatic osteosarcoma remains associated with a poor prognosis; therefore, more effective anti-metastatic drugs are needed. Differentiation-inducing factor-1 (DIF-1), -2, and -3 are novel lead anti-tumor agents that were originally isolated from the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum. Here we investigated the effects of a panel of DIF derivatives on lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-induced migration of mouse osteosarcoma LM8 cells by using a Boyden chamber assay. Some DIF derivatives such as Br-DIF-1, DIF-3(+2), and Bu-DIF-3 (5-20 µM) dose-dependently suppressed LPA-induced cell migration with associated IC50 values of 5.5, 4.6, and 4.2 µM, respectively. On the other hand, the IC50 values of Br-DIF-1, DIF-3(+2), and Bu-DIF-3 versus cell proliferation were 18.5, 7.2, and 2.0 µM, respectively, in LM8 cells, and >20, 14.8, and 4.3 µM, respectively, in mouse 3T3-L1 fibroblasts (non-transformed). Together, our results demonstrate that Br-DIF-1 in particular may be a valuable tool for the analysis of cancer cell migration, and that DIF derivatives such as DIF-3(+2) and Bu-DIF-3 are promising lead anti-tumor agents for the development of therapies that suppress osteosarcoma cell proliferation, migration, and metastasis.

Synthesis of prenylated quinolinecarboxylic acid derivatives and their anti-obesity activities.

Mitochondrial uncoupling is one of the therapeutic strategies used to control energy metabolism in various metabolic diseases and in obesity. Ppc-1 (1), a prenylated quinolinecarboxylic acid isolated from cellular slime molds, shows uncoupling activity in vitro and anti-obesity activity in vivo. In this study, we synthesized Ppc-1 (1) and its derivatives, and revealed the structure-activity relationship of uncoupling activities. The triprenylated compound 18 showed mitochondrial uncoupling activity that was more potent than that of Ppc-1 (1). Compound 18 also suppressed weight gain in mice without undesired effects such as lesions on tissues. These results indicate that compound 18 could be used as a seed compound for new anti-obesity drugs.

Development of novel DIF-1 derivatives that selectively suppress innate immune responses.

The multiple pharmacological activities of differentiation-inducing factor-1 (DIF-1) of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum led us to examine the use of DIF-1 as a 'drug template' to develop promising seed compounds for drug discovery. DIF-1 and its derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for their regulatory activities in innate immune responses. We found two new derivatives (4d and 5e) with highly selective inhibitory activities against production of the antimicrobial peptide attacin in Drosophila S2 cells and against production of interleukin-2 in Jurkat cells.

Isolation of a Cyclic Depsipetide, Aspergillicin F, and Synthesis of Aspergillicins with Innate Immune-Modulating Activity.

Innate immunity is the front line of self-defense against microbial infection. After searching for natural compounds that regulate innate immunity using an ex vivo Drosophila culture system, we identified a new cyclic depsipeptide, aspergillicin F, from the fungus Aspergillus sp., as an innate immune suppressor. The total synthesis and biological evaluation of the aspergillicin family, including aspergillicin F, were performed, revealing that slight structural differences in the side chains of amino acid residues alter innate immunity-regulating activity.