Detecting single ORAI1 proteins within the plasma membrane reveals higher-order channel complexes.

ORAI1 proteins form highly selective Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane. Crystallographic data point towards a hexameric stoichiometry of ORAI1 channels, whereas optical methods postulated ORAI1 channels to reside as dimers at rest, and other data suggests that they have a tetrameric configuration. Here, liquid-phase scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and quantum dot (QD) labeling was utilized to study the conformation of ORAI1 proteins at rest. To address the question of whether ORAI1 was present as a dimer, experiments were designed using single ORAI1 monomers and covalently linked ORAI1 dimers with either one or two label-binding positions. The microscopic data was statistically analyzed via the pair correlation function. Label pairs were found in all cases, even for concatenated dimers with one label-binding position, which is only possible if a significant fraction of ORAI1 was assembled in larger order oligomers than dimers, binding at least two QDs. This interpretation of the data was consistent with Blue Native PAGE analysis showing that ORAI1 is mainly present as a complex of an apparent molecular mass larger than that calculated for a dimer.

Determining the Efficiency of Single Molecule Quantum Dot Labeling of HER2 in Breast Cancer Cells.

Quantum dots exhibit unique properties compared to other fluorophores, such as bright fluorescence and lack of photobleaching, resulting in their widespread utilization as fluorescent protein labels in the life sciences. However, their application is restricted to relative quantifications due to lacking knowledge about the labeling efficiency. We here present a strategy for determining the labeling efficiency of quantum dot labeling of HER2 in overexpressing breast cancer cells. Correlative light- and liquid-phase electron microscopy of whole cells was used to convert fluorescence intensities into the underlying molecular densities of the quantum dots. The labeling procedure with small affinity proteins was optimized yielding a maximal labeling efficiency of 83%, which was applicable to the high amount of ∼1.5 × 106 HER2 per cell. With the labeling efficiency known, it is now possible to derive the absolute protein expression levels in the plasma membrane and its variation within a cell and between cells.

Supra-Molecular Assemblies of ORAI1 at Rest Precede Local Accumulation into Puncta after Activation.

The Ca2+ selective channel ORAI1 and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident STIM proteins form the core of the channel complex mediating store operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE). Using liquid phase electron microscopy (LPEM), the distribution of ORAI1 proteins was examined at rest and after SOCE-activation at nanoscale resolution. The analysis of over seven hundred thousand ORAI1 positions revealed a number of ORAI1 channels had formed STIM-independent distinct supra-molecular clusters. Upon SOCE activation and in the presence of STIM proteins, a fraction of ORAI1 assembled in micron-sized two-dimensional structures, such as the known puncta at the ER plasma membrane contact zones, but also in divergent structures such as strands, and ring-like shapes. Our results thus question the hypothesis that stochastically migrating single ORAI1 channels are trapped at regions containing activated STIM, and we propose instead that supra-molecular ORAI1 clusters fulfill an amplifying function for creating dense ORAI1 accumulations upon SOCE-activation.

EGFR Expression in HER2-Driven Breast Cancer Cells.

The epidermal growth factor receptor HER2 is overexpressed in 20% of breast cancer cases. HER2 is an orphan receptor that is activated ligand-independently by homodimerization. In addition, HER2 is able to heterodimerize with EGFR, HER3, and HER4. Heterodimerization has been proposed as a mechanism of resistance to therapy for HER2 overexpressing breast cancer. Here, a method is presented for the simultaneous detection of individual EGFR and HER2 receptors in the plasma membrane of breast cancer cells via specific labeling with quantum dot nanoparticles (QDs). Correlative fluorescence microscopy and liquid phase electron microscopy were used to analyze the plasma membrane expression levels of both receptors in individual intact cells. Fluorescent single-cell analysis of SKBR3 breast cancer cells dual-labeled for EGFR and HER2 revealed a heterogeneous expression for receptors within both the cell population as well as within individual cells. Subsequent electron microscopy of individual cells allowed the determination of individual receptors label distributions. QD-labeled EGFR was observed with a surface density of (0.5-5) × 101 QDs/µm2, whereas labeled HER2 expression was higher ranging from (2-10) × 102 QDs/µm2. Although most SKBR3 cells expressed low levels of EGFR, an enrichment was observed at large plasma membrane protrusions, and amongst a newly discovered cellular subpopulation termed EGFR-enriched cells.

Visualisation of HER2 homodimers in single cells from HER2 overexpressing primary formalin fixed paraffin embedded tumour tissue.

BACKGROUND: HER2 is considered as one of the most important, predictive biomarkers in oncology. The diagnosis of HER2 positive cancer types such as breast- and gastric cancer is usually based on immunohistochemical HER2 staining of tumour tissue. However, the current immunohistochemical methods do not provide localized information about HER2's functional state. In order to generate signals leading to cell growth and proliferation, the receptor spontaneously forms homodimers, a process that can differ between individual cancer cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: HER2 overexpressing tumour cells were dissociated from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) patient's biopsy sections, subjected to a heat-induced antigen retrieval procedure, and immobilized on microchips. HER2 was specifically labelled via a two-step protocol involving the incubation with an Affibody-biotin compound followed by the binding of a streptavidin coated quantum dot (QD) nanoparticle. Cells with membrane bound HER2 were identified using fluorescence microscopy, coated with graphene to preserve their hydrated state, and subsequently examined by scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) to obtain the locations at the single molecule level. Label position data was statistically analysed via the pair correlation function, yielding information about the presence of HER2 homodimers. RESULTS: Tumour cells from two biopsies, scored HER2 3+, and a HER2 negative control sample were examined. The specific labelling protocol was first tested for a sectioned tissue sample of HER2-overexpressing tumour. Subsequently, a protocol was optimized to study HER2 homodimerization in single cells dissociated from the tissue section. Electron microscopy data showed membrane bound HER2 in average densities of 201-689 proteins/µm2. An automated, statistical analysis of well over 200,000 of measured protein positions revealed the presence of HER2 homodimers in 33 and 55% of the analysed images for patient 1 and 2, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We introduced an electron microscopy method capable of measuring the positions of individually labelled HER2 proteins in patient tumour cells from which information about the functional status of the receptor was derived. This method could take HER2 testing a step further by examining HER2 homodimerization directly out of tumour tissue and may become important for adjusting a personalized antibody-based drug therapy.

The 2018 correlative microscopy techniques roadmap.

Developments in microscopy have been instrumental to progress in the life sciences, and many new techniques have been introduced and led to new discoveries throughout the last century. A wide and diverse range of methodologies is now available, including electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, magnetic resonance imaging, small-angle x-ray scattering and multiple super-resolution fluorescence techniques, and each of these methods provides valuable read-outs to meet the demands set by the samples under study. Yet, the investigation of cell development requires a multi-parametric approach to address both the structure and spatio-temporal organization of organelles, and also the transduction of chemical signals and forces involved in cell-cell interactions. Although the microscopy technologies for observing each of these characteristics are well developed, none of them can offer read-out of all characteristics simultaneously, which limits the information content of a measurement. For example, while electron microscopy is able to disclose the structural layout of cells and the macromolecular arrangement of proteins, it cannot directly follow dynamics in living cells. The latter can be achieved with fluorescence microscopy which, however, requires labelling and lacks spatial resolution. A remedy is to combine and correlate different readouts from the same specimen, which opens new avenues to understand structure-function relations in biomedical research. At the same time, such correlative approaches pose new challenges concerning sample preparation, instrument stability, region of interest retrieval, and data analysis. Because the field of correlative microscopy is relatively young, the capabilities of the various approaches have yet to be fully explored, and uncertainties remain when considering the best choice of strategy and workflow for the correlative experiment. With this in mind, the Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics presents a special roadmap on the correlative microscopy techniques, giving a comprehensive overview from various leading scientists in this field, via a collection of multiple short viewpoints.

The stoichiometry of the TMEM16A ion channel determined in intact plasma membranes of COS-7 cells using liquid-phase electron microscopy.

TMEM16A is a membrane protein forming a calcium-activated chloride channel. A homodimeric stoichiometry of the TMEM16 family of proteins has been reported but an important question is whether the protein resides always in a dimeric configuration in the plasma membrane or whether monomers of the protein are also present in its native state within in the intact plasma membrane. We have determined the stoichiometry of the human (h)TMEM16A within whole COS-7 cells in liquid. For the purpose of detecting TMEM16A subunits, single proteins were tagged by the streptavidin-binding peptide within extracellular loops accessible by streptavidin coated quantum dot (QD) nanoparticles. The labeled proteins were then imaged using correlative light microscopy and environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) using scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) detection. The locations of 19,583 individual proteins were determined of which a statistical analysis using the pair correlation function revealed the presence of a dimeric conformation of the protein. The amounts of detected label pairs and single labels were compared between experiments in which the TMEM16A SBP-tag position was varied, and experiments in which tagged and non-tagged TMEM16A proteins were present. It followed that hTMEM16A resides in the plasma membrane as dimer only and is not present as monomer. This strategy may help to elucidate the stoichiometry of other membrane protein species within the context of the intact plasma membrane in future.

The Effect of Electron Beam Irradiation in Environmental Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy of Whole Cells in Liquid.

Whole cells can be studied in their native liquid environment using electron microscopy, and unique information about the locations and stoichiometry of individual membrane proteins can be obtained from many cells thus taking cell heterogeneity into account. Of key importance for the further development of this microscopy technology is knowledge about the effect of electron beam radiation on the samples under investigation. We used environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) with scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) detection to examine the effect of radiation for whole fixed COS7 fibroblasts in liquid. The main observation was the localization of nanoparticle labels attached to epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFRs). It was found that the relative distances between the labels remained mostly unchanged (<1.5%) for electron doses ranging from the undamaged native state at 10 e-/Å2 toward 103 e-/Å2. This dose range was sufficient to determine the EGFR locations with nanometer resolution and to distinguish between monomers and dimers. Various different forms of radiation damage became visible at higher doses, including severe dislocation, and the dissolution of labels.

Visualizing Quantum Dot Labeled ORAI1 Proteins in Intact Cells Via Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy.

ORAI1 proteins are ion channel subunits and the essential pore-forming units of the calcium release-activated calcium channel complex essential for T-cell activation and many other cellular processes. In this study, we used environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) with scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) detection to image plasma membrane expressed ORAI1 proteins in whole Jurkat T cells in the liquid state. Utilizing a stably transfected Jurkat T cell clone expressing human ORAI1 with an extracellular human influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tag we investigated if liquid-phase STEM can be applied to detect recombinant surface expressed protein. Streptavidin coated quantum dots were coupled in a one-to-one stoichiometry to ORAI1 proteins detected by biotinylated anti-HA fragmented antibody fragments. High-resolution electron microscopic images revealed the individual label locations from which protein pair distances were determined. These data were analyzed using the pair correlation function and, in addition, an analysis of cluster size and frequency was performed. ORAI1 was found to be present in hexamers in a small fraction only, and ORAI1 resided mostly in monomers and dimers.

Liquid scanning transmission electron microscopy: imaging protein complexes in their native environment in whole eukaryotic cells.

Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) of specimens in liquid, so-called Liquid STEM, is capable of imaging the individual subunits of macromolecular complexes in whole eukaryotic cells in liquid. This paper discusses this new microscopy modality within the context of state-of-the-art microscopy of cells. The principle of operation and equations for the resolution are described. The obtained images are different from those acquired with standard transmission electron microscopy showing the cellular ultrastructure. Instead, contrast is obtained on specific labels. Images can be recorded in two ways, either via STEM at 200 keV electron beam energy using a microfluidic chamber enclosing the cells, or via environmental scanning electron microscopy at 30 keV of cells in a wet environment. The first series of experiments involved the epidermal growth factor receptor labeled with gold nanoparticles. The labels were imaged in whole fixed cells with nanometer resolution. Since the cells can be kept alive in the microfluidic chamber, it is also feasible to detect the labels in unfixed, live cells. The rapid sample preparation and imaging allows studies of multiple whole cells.

Gold nanoparticle uptake in whole cells in liquid examined by environmental scanning electron microscopy.

The size of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) can influence various aspects of their cellular uptake. Light microscopy is not capable of resolving most AuNPs, while electron microscopy (EM) is not practically capable of acquiring the necessary statistical data from many cells and the results may suffer from various artifacts. Here, we demonstrate the use of a fast EM method for obtaining high-resolution data from a much larger population of cells than is usually feasible with conventional EM. A549 (human lung carcinoma) cells were subjected to uptake protocols with 10, 15, or 30 nm diameter AuNPs with adsorbed serum proteins. After 20 min, 24 h, or 45 h, the cells were fixed and imaged in whole in a thin layer of liquid water with environmental scanning electron microscopy equipped with a scanning transmission electron microscopy detector. The fast preparation and imaging of 145 whole cells in liquid allowed collection of nanoscale data within an exceptionally small amount of time of ~80 h. Analysis of 1,041 AuNP-filled vesicles showed that the long-term AuNP storing lysosomes increased their average size by 80 nm when AuNPs with 30 nm diameter were uptaken, compared to lysosomes of cells incubated with AuNPs of 10 and 15 nm diameter.

Visualizing gold nanoparticle uptake in live cells with liquid scanning transmission electron microscopy.

The intracellular uptake of 30 nm diameter gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) was studied at the nanoscale in pristine eukaryotic cells. Live COS-7 cells were maintained in a microfluidic chamber and imaged using scanning transmission electron microscopy. A quantitative image analysis showed that Au-NPs bound to the membranes of vesicles, possibly lysosomes, and occupied 67% of the available surface area. The vesicles accumulated to form a micrometer-sized cluster after 24 h of incubation. Two clusters were analyzed and found to consist of 117 ± 9 and 164 ± 4 NP-filled vesicles.

Fully hydrated yeast cells imaged with electron microscopy.

We demonstrate electron microscopy of fully hydrated eukaryotic cells with nanometer resolution. Living Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells were loaded in a microfluidic chamber and imaged in liquid with scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The native intracellular (ultra)structures of wild-type cells and three different mutants were studied without prior labeling, fixation, or staining. The STEM images revealed various intracellular components that were identified on the basis of their shape, size, location, and mass density. The maximal achieved spatial resolution in this initial study was 32 ± 8 nm, an order of magnitude better than achievable with light microscopy on pristine cells. Light-microscopy images of the same samples were correlated with the corresponding electron-microscopy images. Achieving synergy between the capabilities of light and electron microscopy, we anticipate that liquid STEM will be broadly applied to explore the ultrastructure of live cells.

Quantification of EGFR-HER2 Heterodimers in HER2-Overexpressing Breast Cancer Cells Using Liquid-Phase Electron Microscopy.

Currently, breast cancer patients are classified uniquely according to the expression level of hormone receptors, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). This coarse classification is insufficient to capture the phenotypic complexity and heterogeneity of the disease. A methodology was developed for absolute quantification of receptor surface density ρR, and molecular interaction (dimerization), as well as the associated heterogeneities, of HER2 and its family member, the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in the plasma membrane of HER2 overexpressing breast cancer cells. Quantitative, correlative light microscopy (LM) and liquid-phase electron microscopy (LPEM) were combined with quantum dot (QD) labeling. Single-molecule position data of receptors were obtained from scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) images of intact cancer cells. Over 280,000 receptor positions were detected and statistically analyzed. An important finding was the subcellular heterogeneity in heterodimer shares with respect to plasma membrane regions with different dynamic properties. Deriving quantitative information about EGFR and HER2 ρR, as well as their dimer percentages, and the heterogeneities thereof, in single cancer cells, is potentially relevant for early identification of patients with HER2 overexpressing tumors comprising an enhanced share of EGFR dimers, likely increasing the risk for drug resistance, and thus requiring additional targeted therapeutic strategies.

Immobilization and release strategies for DNA delivery using carbon nanofiber arrays and self-assembled monolayers.

We report a strategy for immobilizing dsDNA (double-stranded DNA) onto vertically aligned carbon nanofibers and subsequently releasing this dsDNA following penetration and residence of these high aspect ratio structures within cells. Gold-coated nanofiber arrays were modified with self-assembled monolayers (SAM) to which reporter dsDNA was covalently and end-specifically bound with or without a cleavable linker. The DNA-modified nanofiber arrays were then used to impale, and thereby transfect, Chinese hamster lung epithelial cells. This mechanical approach enables the transport of bound ligands directly into the cell nucleus and consequently bypasses extracellular and cytosolic degradation. Statistically significant differences were observed between the expression levels from immobilized and releasable DNA, and these are discussed in relation to the distinct accessibility and mode of action of glutathione, an intracellular reducing agent responsible for releasing the bound dsDNA. These results prove for the first time that an end-specifically and covalently SAM-bound DNA can be expressed in cells. They further demonstrate how the choice of immobilization and release methods can impact expression of nanoparticle delivered DNA.

Mathematical modeling of drug-induced receptor internalization in the HER2-positive SKBR3 breast cancer cell-line.

About 20% of breast cancer tumors over-express the HER2 receptor. Trastuzumab, an approved drug to treat this type of breast cancer, is a monoclonal antibody directly binding at the HER2 receptor and ultimately inhibiting cancer cell growth. The goal of our study was to understand the early impact of trastuzumab on HER2 internalization and recycling in the HER2-overexpressing breast cancer cell line SKBR3. To this end, fluorescence microscopy, monitoring the amount of HER2 expression in the plasma membrane, was combined with mathematical modeling to derive the flux of HER2 receptors from and to the membrane. We constructed a dynamic multi-compartment model based on ordinary differential equations. To account for cancer cell heterogeneity, a first, dynamic model was expanded to a second model including two distinct cell phenotypes, with implications for different conformational states of HER2, i.e. monomeric or homodimeric. Our mathematical model shows that the hypothesis of fast constitutive HER2 recycling back to the plasma membrane does not match the experimental data. It conclusively describes the experimental observation that trastuzumab induces sustained receptor internalization in cells with membrane ruffles. It is also concluded that for rare, non-ruffled (flat) cells, HER2 internalization occurs three orders of magnitude slower than for the bulk, ruffled cell population.

Liquid-phase electron microscopy of molecular drug response in breast cancer cells reveals irresponsive cell subpopulations related to lack of HER2 homodimers.

The development of drug resistance in cancer poses a major clinical problem. An example is human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) overexpressing breast cancer often treated with anti-HER2 antibody therapies, such as trastuzumab. Since drug resistance is rooted mainly in tumor cell heterogeneity, we examined the drug effect in different subpopulations of SKBR3 breast cancer cells, and compared the results with a drug resistant cell line, HCC1954. Correlative light microscopy and liquid-phase scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) were used to quantitatively analyze HER2 responses upon drug binding, whereby many tens of whole cells were imaged. Trastuzumab was found to selectively cross-link and down regulate HER2 homodimers from the plasma membranes of bulk cancer cells. In contrast, HER2 resided mainly as monomers in rare subpopulations of resting- and cancer stem cells (CSCs), and these monomers were not internalized after drug binding. The HER2 distribution was hardly influenced by trastuzumab for the HCC1954 cells. These findings show that resting cells and CSCs are irresponsive to the drug, and thus point towards a molecular explanation behind the origin of drug resistance. This analytical method is broadly applicable to study membrane protein interactions in the intact plasma membrane, while accounting for cell heterogeneity.

Graphene Liquid Enclosure for Single-Molecule Analysis of Membrane Proteins in Whole Cells Using Electron Microscopy.

Membrane proteins govern many important functions in cells via dynamic oligomerization into active complexes. However, analytical methods to study their distribution and functional state in relation to the cellular structure are currently limited. Here, we introduce a technique for studying single-membrane proteins within their native context of the intact plasma membrane. SKBR3 breast cancer cells were grown on silicon microchips with thin silicon nitride windows. The cells were fixed, and the epidermal growth factor receptor ErbB2 was specifically labeled with quantum dot (QD) nanoparticles. For correlative fluorescence- and liquid-phase electron microscopy, we enclosed the liquid samples by chemical vapor deposited (CVD) graphene films. Depending on the local cell thickness, QD labels were imaged with a spatial resolution of 2 nm at a low electron dose. The distribution and stoichiometric assembly of ErbB2 receptors were determined at several different cellular locations, including tunneling nanotubes, where we found higher levels of homodimerization at the connecting sites. This experimental approach is applicable to a wide range of cell lines and membrane proteins and particularly suitable for studies involving both inter- and intracellular heterogeneity in protein distribution and expression.

Resident neuroelectrochemical interfacing using carbon nanofiber arrays.

Carbon nanofiber electrode architectures are used to provide for long-term, neuroelectroanalytical measurements of the dynamic processes of intercellular communication between excitable cells. Individually addressed, vertically aligned carbon nanofibers are incorporated into multielement electrode arrays upon which excitable cell matrixes of both neuronal-like derived cell lines (rat pheochromocytoma, PC-12) and primary cells (dissociated cells from embryonic rat hippocampus) are cultured over extended periods (days to weeks). Electrode arrays are characterized with respect to their response to easily oxidized neurotransmitters, including dopamine, norepinephrine, and 5-hydroxytyramide. Electroanalysis at discrete electrodes following long-term cell culture demonstrates that this platform remains responsive for the detection of easily oxidized species generated by the cultured cells. Preliminary data also suggests that quantal release of easily oxidized transmitters can be observed at nanofiber electrodes following direct culture and differentiation on the arrays for periods of at least 16 days.

Live Cell Electron Microscopy Is Probably Impossible.

Electron microscopy of biological cells in liquid provides unique nanoscale information. A highly attractive idea is the capability to also study physiological processes of live cells with electron microscopy. However, this idea seems unrealistic because the minimal needed electron dose to obtain contrast is already many orders of magnitude above the lethal dose known to cause reproductive-cell death. We show here that claims of electron microscopy of viable cells in recent reports are based on a questionable interpretation of the used fluorescence live/dead assay. A practical alternative to study biological processes is correlative light and electron microscopy.