A hyperpromiscuous antitoxin protein domain for the neutralization of diverse toxin domains.

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) gene pairs are ubiquitous in microbial chromosomal genomes and plasmids as well as temperate bacteriophages. They act as regulatory switches, with the toxin limiting the growth of bacteria and archaea by compromising diverse essential cellular targets and the antitoxin counteracting the toxic effect. To uncover previously uncharted TA diversity across microbes and bacteriophages, we analyzed the conservation of genomic neighborhoods using our computational tool FlaGs (for flanking genes), which allows high-throughput detection of TA-like operons. Focusing on the widespread but poorly experimentally characterized antitoxin domain DUF4065, our in silico analyses indicated that DUF4065-containing proteins serve as broadly distributed antitoxin components in putative TA-like operons with dozens of different toxic domains with multiple different folds. Given the versatility of DUF4065, we have named the domain Panacea (and proteins containing the domain, PanA) after the Greek goddess of universal remedy. We have experimentally validated nine PanA-neutralized TA pairs. While the majority of validated PanA-neutralized toxins act as translation inhibitors or membrane disruptors, a putative nucleotide cyclase toxin from a Burkholderia prophage compromises transcription and translation as well as inducing RelA-dependent accumulation of the nucleotide alarmone (p)ppGpp. We find that Panacea-containing antitoxins form a complex with their diverse cognate toxins, characteristic of the direct neutralization mechanisms employed by Type II TA systems. Finally, through directed evolution, we have selected PanA variants that can neutralize noncognate TA toxins, thus experimentally demonstrating the evolutionary plasticity of this hyperpromiscuous antitoxin domain.

A tripartite cytolytic toxin formed by Vibrio cholerae proteins with flagellum-facilitated secretion.

The protein MakA was discovered as a motility-associated secreted toxin from Vibrio cholerae Here, we show that MakA is part of a gene cluster encoding four additional proteins: MakB, MakC, MakD, and MakE. MakA, MakB, and MakE were readily detected in culture supernatants of wild-type V. cholerae, whereas secretion was very much reduced from a flagellum-deficient mutant. Crystal structures of MakA, MakB, and MakE revealed a structural relationship to a superfamily of bacterial pore-forming toxins. Expression of MakA/B/E in Escherichia coli resulted in toxicity toward Caenorhabditis elegans used as a predatory model organism. None of these Mak proteins alone or in pairwise combinations were cytolytic, but an equimolar mixture of MakA, MakB, and MakE acted as a tripartite cytolytic toxin in vitro, causing lysis of erythrocytes and cytotoxicity on cultured human colon carcinoma cells. Formation of oligomeric complexes on liposomes was observed by electron microscopy. Oligomer interaction with membranes was initiated by MakA membrane binding followed by MakB and MakE joining the assembly of a pore structure. A predicted membrane insertion domain of MakA was shown by site-directed mutagenesis to be essential for toxicity toward C. elegans Bioinformatic analyses revealed that the makCDBAE gene cluster is present as a genomic island in the vast majority of sequenced genomes of V. cholerae and the fish pathogen Vibrio anguillarum We suggest that the hitherto-unrecognized cytolytic MakA/B/E toxin can contribute to Vibrionaceae fitness and virulence potential in different host environments and organisms.

Vibrio cholerae cytotoxin MakA induces noncanonical autophagy resulting in the spatial inhibition of canonical autophagy.

Autophagy plays an essential role in the defense against many microbial pathogens as a regulator of both innate and adaptive immunity. Some pathogens have evolved sophisticated mechanisms that promote their ability to evade or subvert host autophagy. Here, we describe a novel mechanism of autophagy modulation mediated by the recently discovered Vibrio cholerae cytotoxin, motility-associated killing factor A (MakA). pH-dependent endocytosis of MakA by host cells resulted in the formation of a cholesterol-rich endolysosomal membrane aggregate in the perinuclear region. Aggregate formation induced the noncanonical autophagy pathway driving unconventional LC3 (herein referring to MAP1LC3B) lipidation on endolysosomal membranes. Subsequent sequestration of the ATG12-ATG5-ATG16L1 E3-like enzyme complex, required for LC3 lipidation at the membranous aggregate, resulted in an inhibition of both canonical autophagy and autophagy-related processes, including the unconventional secretion of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß). These findings identify a novel mechanism of host autophagy modulation and immune modulation employed by V. cholerae during bacterial infection.

Phosphatidic acid-mediated binding and mammalian cell internalization of the Vibrio cholerae cytotoxin MakA.

Vibrio cholerae is a noninvasive intestinal pathogen extensively studied as the causative agent of the human disease cholera. Our recent work identified MakA as a potent virulence factor of V. cholerae in both Caenorhabditis elegans and zebrafish, prompting us to investigate the potential contribution of MakA to pathogenesis also in mammalian hosts. In this study, we demonstrate that the MakA protein could induce autophagy and cytotoxicity of target cells. In addition, we observed that phosphatidic acid (PA)-mediated MakA-binding to the host cell plasma membranes promoted macropinocytosis resulting in the formation of an endomembrane-rich aggregate and vacuolation in intoxicated cells that lead to induction of autophagy and dysfunction of intracellular organelles. Moreover, we functionally characterized the molecular basis of the MakA interaction with PA and identified that the N-terminal domain of MakA is required for its binding to PA and thereby for cell toxicity. Furthermore, we observed that the ΔmakA mutant outcompeted the wild-type V. cholerae strain A1552 in the adult mouse infection model. Based on the findings revealing mechanistic insights into the dynamic process of MakA-induced autophagy and cytotoxicity we discuss the potential role played by the MakA protein during late stages of cholera infection as an anti-colonization factor.

Suppression of ß-catenin signaling in colon carcinoma cells by a bacterial protein.

Colorectal cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene is mutated in hereditary colorectal tumors and in more than 80% of sporadic colorectal tumors. APC mutations impair ß-catenin degradation, leading to its permanent stabilization and increased transcription of cancer-driving target genes. In colon cancer, impairment of ß-catenin degradation leads to its cytoplasmic accumulation, nuclear translocation, and subsequent activation of tumor cell proliferation. Suppressing ß-catenin signaling in cancer cells therefore appears to be a promising strategy for new anticancer strategies. Recently, we discovered a novel Vibrio cholerae cytotoxin, motility-associated killing factor A (MakA), that affects both invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. It promotes bacterial survival and proliferation in invertebrate predators but has unknown biological role(s) in mammalian hosts. Here, we report that MakA can cause lethality of tumor cells via induction of apoptosis. Interestingly, MakA exhibited potent cytotoxic activity, in particular against several tested cancer cell lines, while appearing less toxic toward nontransformed cells. MakA bound to the tumor cell surface became internalized into the endolysosomal compartment and induced leakage of endolysosomal membranes, causing cytosolic release of cathepsins and activation of proapoptotic proteins. In addition, MakA altered ß-catenin integrity in colon cancer cells, partly through a caspase- and proteasome-dependent mechanism. Importantly, MakA inhibited ß-catenin-mediated tumor cell proliferation. Remarkably, intratumor injection of MakA significantly reduced tumor development in a colon cancer murine solid tumor model. These data identify MakA as a novel candidate to be considered in new strategies for development of therapeutic agents against colon cancer.

The HhoA protease from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 - Novel insights into structure and activity regulation.

Proteases play a vital role in the removal of proteins, which become damaged due to temperature or oxidative stress. Important to this process in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 is the family of Deg/HtrA proteases; HhoA (sll1679), HhoB (sll1427) and HtrA (slr1204). While previous studies have elucidated the structures of Deg/HtrA proteases from Escherichia coli and from the chloroplast of the higher plant Arabidopsis thaliana, no structural data have been available for any Deg/HtrA protease from cyanobacteria, the evolutionary ancestor of the chloroplast. To gain a deeper insight into the molecular mechanisms and regulation of these proteins we have solved the structure of the Synechocystis HhoA protease in complex with a co-purified peptide by X-ray crystallography. HhoA assembles into stable trimers, mediated by its protease domain and further into a cage-like hexamer by a novel interaction between the PDZ domains of opposing trimers. Each PDZ domain contains two loops for PDZ-PDZ formation: interaction clamp one and two (IC1, IC2). IC1 interacts with IC2 on the opposing PDZ domain and vice versa. Our structure shows a peptide bound to a conserved groove on the PDZ domain and the properties of this pocket suggest that it binds substrate proteins as well as the neo C-termini of cleaved substrates. In agreement with previous studies showing the proteolytic activity of HhoA to be activated by Ca2+ or Mg2+, binding of divalent metal ions to the central channel of the trimer by the L1 activation loop was observed.

A comparative analysis of lipoprotein transport proteins: LolA and LolB from Vibrio cholerae and LolA from Porphyromonas gingivalis.

In Gram-negative bacteria, N-terminal lipidation is a signal for protein trafficking from the inner membrane (IM) to the outer membrane (OM). The IM complex LolCDE extracts lipoproteins from the membrane and moves them to the chaperone LolA. The LolA-lipoprotein complex crosses the periplasm after which the lipoprotein is anchored to the OM. In γ-proteobacteria anchoring is assisted by the receptor LolB, while a corresponding protein has not been identified in other phyla. In light of the low sequence similarity between Lol-systems from different phyla and that they may use different Lol components, it is crucial to compare representative proteins from several species. Here we present a structure-function study of LolA and LolB from two phyla: LolA from Porphyromonas gingivalis (phylum bacteroidota), and LolA and LolB from Vibrio cholerae (phylum proteobacteria). Despite large sequence differences, the LolA structures are very similar, hence structure and function have been conserved throughout evolution. However, an Arg-Pro motif crucial for function in γ-proteobacteria has no counterpart in bacteroidota. We also show that LolA from both phyla bind the antibiotic polymyxin B whereas LolB does not. Collectively, these studies will facilitate the development of antibiotics as they provide awareness of both differences and similarities across phyla.

Small molecules containing hetero-bicyclic ring systems compete with UDP-Glc for binding to WaaG glycosyltransferase.

The α-1,3-glucosyltransferase WaaG is involved in the synthesis of the core region of lipopolysaccharides in E. coli. A fragment-based screening for inhibitors of the WaaG glycosyltrasferase donor site has been performed using NMR spectroscopy. Docking simulations were performed for three of the compounds of the fragment library that had shown binding activity towards WaaG and yielded 3D models for the respective complexes. The three ligands share a hetero-bicyclic ring system as a common structural motif and they compete with UDP-Glc for binding. Interestingly, one of the compounds promoted binding of uridine to WaaG, as seen from STD NMR titrations, suggesting a different binding mode for this ligand. We propose these compounds as scaffolds for the design of selective high-affinity inhibitors of WaaG. Binding of natural substrates, enzymatic activity and donor substrate selectivity were also investigated by NMR spectroscopy. Molecular dynamics simulations of WaaG were carried out with and without bound UDP and revealed structural changes compared to the crystal structure and also variations in flexibility for some amino acid residues between the two WaaG systems studied.

Bacterial protein MakA causes suppression of tumour cell proliferation via inhibition of PIP5K1α/Akt signalling.

Recently, we demonstrated that a novel bacterial cytotoxin, the protein MakA which is released by Vibrio cholerae, is a virulence factor, causing killing of Caenorhabditis elegans when the worms are grazing on the bacteria. Studies with mammalian cell cultures in vitro indicated that MakA could affect eukaryotic cell signalling pathways involved in lipid biosynthesis. MakA treatment of colon cancer cells in vitro caused inhibition of growth and loss of cell viability. These findings prompted us to investigate possible signalling pathways that could be targets of the MakA-mediated inhibition of tumour cell proliferation. Initial in vivo studies with MakA producing V. cholerae and C. elegans suggested that the MakA protein might target the PIP5K1α phospholipid-signalling pathway in the worms. Intriguingly, MakA was then found to inhibit the PIP5K1α lipid-signalling pathway in cancer cells, resulting in a decrease in PIP5K1α and pAkt expression. Further analyses revealed that MakA inhibited cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) and induced p27 expression, resulting in G2/M cell cycle arrest. Moreover, MakA induced downregulation of Ki67 and cyclin D1, which led to inhibition of cell proliferation. This is the first report about a bacterial protein that may target signalling involving the cancer cell lipid modulator PIP5K1α in colon cancer cells, implying an anti-cancer effect.

Protein-lipid interaction at low pH induces oligomerization of the MakA cytotoxin from Vibrio cholerae.

The α-pore-forming toxins (α-PFTs) from pathogenic bacteria damage host cell membranes by pore formation. We demonstrate a remarkable, hitherto unknown mechanism by an α-PFT protein from Vibrio cholerae. As part of the MakA/B/E tripartite toxin, MakA is involved in membrane pore formation similar to other α-PFTs. In contrast, MakA in isolation induces tube-like structures in acidic endosomal compartments of epithelial cells in vitro. The present study unravels the dynamics of tubular growth, which occurs in a pH-, lipid-, and concentration-dependent manner. Within acidified organelle lumens or when incubated with cells in acidic media, MakA forms oligomers and remodels membranes into high-curvature tubes leading to loss of membrane integrity. A 3.7 Å cryo-electron microscopy structure of MakA filaments reveals a unique protein-lipid superstructure. MakA forms a pinecone-like spiral with a central cavity and a thin annular lipid bilayer embedded between the MakA transmembrane helices in its active α-PFT conformation. Our study provides insights into a novel tubulation mechanism of an α-PFT protein and a new mode of action by a secreted bacterial toxin.

Structure of the sortase AcSrtC-1 from Actinomyces oris.

The crystal structure of the sortase AcSrtC-1 from the oral microorganism Actinomyces oris has been determined to 2.4 Šresolution. AcSrtC-1 is a cysteine transpeptidase that is responsible for the formation of fimbriae by the polymerization of a shaft protein. Similar to other pili-associated sortases, the AcSrtC-1 active site is protected by a flexible lid. The asymmetric unit contains five AcSrtC-1 molecules and their catalytic Cys-His-Arg triads are trapped in two different conformations. It is also shown that the thermostability of the enzyme is increased by the presence of calcium.

The changing faces of Streptococcus antigen I/II polypeptide family adhesins.

Streptococcus mutans antigen I/II (AgI/II) protein was one of the first cell wall-anchored adhesins identified in Gram-positive bacteria. It mediates attachment of S. mutans to tooth surfaces and has been a focus for immunization studies against dental caries. The AgI/II family polypeptides recognize salivary glycoproteins, and are also involved in biofilm formation, platelet aggregation, tissue invasion and immune modulation. The genes encoding AgI/II family polypeptides are found among Streptococcus species indigenous to the human mouth, as well as in Streptococcus pyogenes, S. agalactiae and S. suis. Evidence of functionalities for different regions of the AgI/II proteins has emerged. A sequence motif within the C-terminal portion of Streptococcus gordonii SspB (AgI/II) is bound by Porphyromonas gingivalis, thus promoting oral colonization by this anaerobic pathogen. The significance of other epitopes is now clearer following resolution of regional crystal structures. A new picture emerges of the central V (variable) region, predicted to contain a carbohydrate-binding trench, being projected from the cell surface by a stalk formed by an unusual association between an N-terminal alpha-helix and a C-terminal polyproline helix. This presentation mode might be important in determining functional conformations of other Gram-positive surface proteins that have adhesin domains flanked by alpha-helical and proline-rich regions.

Crystallization of the fimbrial protein FimP from Actinomyces oris and of a triple Ile-to-Met mutant engineered to facilitate selenomethionine labelling.

Actinomyces oris is an oral bacterium important for the development of dental plaque. It expresses two forms of fimbriae: type 1 and type 2. FimP, which is the fimbrial protein that is polymerized into the stalk of the type 1 fimbriae, was cloned, overexpressed and crystallized. X-ray data were collected and processed to 2.2 Å resolution. The crystals belonged to space group P2(1)2(1)2, with one molecule in the asymmetric unit. To facilitate structure determination using single anomalous dispersion, three methionines were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis. Crystals of selenomethionine-labelled protein were obtained by streak-seeding and diffracted to 2.0 Å resolution.

Structure of the C-terminal domain of the surface antigen SpaP from the caries pathogen Streptococcus mutans.

SpaP is a 1500-residue adhesin expressed on the surface of the caries-implicated bacterium Streptococcus mutans. SpaP is a member of the antigen I/II (AgI/II) family of proteins expressed by oral streptococci. These surface proteins are crucial for the incorporation of streptococci into dental plaque. The structure of the C-terminal domain of SpaP (residues 1136-1489) was solved and refined to 2.2 Šresolution with six molecules in the asymmetric unit. Similar to a related AgI/II structure, SpaP is stabilized by isopeptide bonds between lysine and asparagine side chains.

Structural and functional characterization of a plant alpha-actinin.

The Australian tree malletwood (Rhodamnia argentea) is unique. The genome of malletwood is the only known plant genome that contains a gene coding for an α-actinin-like protein. Several organisms predating the animal-plant bifurcation express an α-actinin or α-actinin-like protein. Therefore, it appears that plants in general, but not malletwood, have lost the α-actinin or α-actinin-like gene during evolution. In order to characterize its structure and function, we synthesized the gene and expressed the recombinant R. argentea protein. The results clearly show that this protein has all properties of genuine α-actinin. The N-terminal actin-binding domain (ABD), with two calponin homology motifs, is very similar to the ABD of any α-actinin. The C-terminal calmodulin-like domain, as well as the intervening rod domain, are also similar to the corresponding regions in other α-actinins. The R. argentea α-actinin-like protein dimerises in solution and thereby can cross-link actin filaments. Based on these results, we believe the R. argentea protein represents a genuine α-actinin, making R. argentea unique in the plant world.

Crystallization of Recombinant Fimbrial Proteins of Porphyromonas gingivalis.

Porphyromonas gingivalis fimbriae play a critical role in colonization. Elucidation of the fimbrial structure in atomic detail is important for understanding the colonization mechanism and to provide means to combat periodontitis. X-ray crystallography is a technique that is used to obtain detailed information of proteins along with bound ligands and ions. Crystallization of the protein of interest is the first step toward structure determination. Unfortunately it is not possible to predict the crystallization condition of a certain protein or even if the protein can be crystallized. Protein crystallization is, on the contrary, a matter of trial and error. However, the best strategy for success is to focus on the protein purification step to obtain a sample that is pure, stable, homogeneous and of high concentration. This chapter addresses general methods for crystallization of fimbrial proteins.

High-resolution model of Arabidopsis Photosystem II reveals the structural consequences of digitonin-extraction.

In higher plants, the photosynthetic process is performed and regulated by Photosystem II (PSII). Arabidopsis thaliana was the first higher plant with a fully sequenced genome, conferring it the status of a model organism; nonetheless, a high-resolution structure of its Photosystem II is missing. We present the first Cryo-EM high-resolution structure of Arabidopsis PSII supercomplex with average resolution of 2.79 Å, an important model for future PSII studies. The digitonin extracted PSII complexes demonstrate the importance of: the LHG2630-lipid-headgroup in the trimerization of the light-harvesting complex II; the stabilization of the PsbJ subunit and the CP43-loop E by DGD520-lipid; the choice of detergent for the integrity of membrane protein complexes. Furthermore, our data shows at the anticipated Mn4CaO5-site a single metal ion density as a reminiscent early stage of Photosystem II photoactivation.

Porphyromonas gingivalis fimbrial protein Mfa5 contains a von Willebrand factor domain and an intramolecular isopeptide.

The Gram-negative bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis is a secondary colonizer of the oral biofilm and is involved in the onset and progression of periodontitis. Its fimbriae, of type-V, are important for attachment to other microorganisms in the biofilm and for adhesion to host cells. The fimbriae are assembled from five proteins encoded by the mfa1 operon, of which Mfa5 is one of the ancillary tip proteins. Here we report the X-ray structure of the N-terminal half of Mfa5, which reveals a von Willebrand factor domain and two IgG-like domains. One of the IgG-like domains is stabilized by an intramolecular isopeptide bond, which is the first such bond observed in a Gram-negative bacterium. These features make Mfa5 structurally more related to streptococcal adhesins than to the other P. gingivalis Mfa proteins. The structure reported here indicates that horizontal gene transfer has occurred among the bacteria within the oral biofilm.

Structural Insight into a Yeast Maltase-The BaAG2 from Blastobotrys adeninivorans with Transglycosylating Activity.

An early-diverged yeast, Blastobotrys (Arxula) adeninivorans (Ba), has biotechnological potential due to nutritional versatility, temperature tolerance, and production of technologically applicable enzymes. We have biochemically characterized from the Ba type strain (CBS 8244) the GH13-family maltase BaAG2 with efficient transglycosylation activity on maltose. In the current study, transglycosylation of sucrose was studied in detail. The chemical entities of sucrose-derived oligosaccharides were determined using nuclear magnetic resonance. Several potentially prebiotic oligosaccharides with α-1,1, α-1,3, α-1,4, and α-1,6 linkages were disclosed among the products. Trisaccharides isomelezitose, erlose, and theanderose, and disaccharides maltulose and trehalulose were dominant transglycosylation products. To date no structure for yeast maltase has been determined. Structures of the BaAG2 with acarbose and glucose in the active center were solved at 2.12 and 2.13 Å resolution, respectively. BaAG2 exhibited a catalytic domain with a (ß/α)8-barrel fold and Asp216, Glu274, and Asp348 as the catalytic triad. The fairly wide active site cleft contained water channels mediating substrate hydrolysis. Next to the substrate-binding pocket an enlarged space for potential binding of transglycosylation acceptors was identified. The involvement of a Glu (Glu309) at subsite +2 and an Arg (Arg233) at subsite +3 in substrate binding was shown for the first time for α-glucosidases.

High-yield expression and purification of a monotopic membrane glycosyltransferase.

Membrane proteins are essential to many cellular processes. However, the systematic study of membrane protein structure has been hindered by the difficulty in obtaining large quantities of these proteins. Protein overexpression using Escherichia coli is commonly used to produce large quantities of protein, but usually yields very little membrane protein. Furthermore, optimization of the expressing conditions, as well as the choice of detergent and other buffer components, is thought to be crucial for increasing the yield of stable and homogeneous protein. Herein we report high-yield expression and purification of a membrane-associated monotopic protein, the glycosyltransferase monoglucosyldiacylglycerol synthase (alMGS), in E. coli. Systematic optimization of protein expression was achieved through controlling a few basic expression parameters, including temperature and growth media, and the purifications were monitored using a fast and efficient size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) screening method. The latter method was shown to be a powerful tool for fast screening and for finding the optimal protein-stabilizing conditions. For alMGS it was found that the concentration of detergent was just as important as the type of detergent, and a low concentration of n-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside (DDM) (approximately 1x critical micelle concentration) was the best for keeping the protein stable and homogeneous. By using these simply methods to optimize the conditions for alMGS expression and purification, the final expression level increase by two orders of magnitude, reaching 170 mg of pure protein per litre culture.