The Prostate Cancer Active Lifestyle Study (PALS): A randomized controlled trial of diet and exercise in overweight and obese men on active surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Active surveillance (AS) is increasingly used to monitor patients with lower risk prostate cancer (PCa). The Prostate Cancer Active Lifestyle Study (PALS) was a randomized controlled trial to determine whether weight loss improves obesity biomarkers on the causal pathway to progression in patients with PCa on AS. METHODS: Overweight/obese men (body mass index >25 kg/m2) diagnosed with PCa who elected AS were recruited. The intervention was a 6-month, individually delivered, structured diet and exercise program adapted from the Diabetes Prevention Program with a 7% weight loss goal from baseline. Control participants attended one session reviewing the US Dietary and Physical Activity Guidelines. The primary outcome was change in glucose regulation from baseline to the end of the 6-month intervention, which was measured by fasting plasma glucose, C-peptide, insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3, adiponectin, and homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance. RESULTS: Among 117 men who were randomized, 100 completed the trial. The mean percentage weight loss was 7.1% and 1.8% in the intervention and control arms, respectively (adjusted between-group mean difference, -6.0 kg; 95% confidence interval, -8.0, -4.0). Mean percentage changes from baseline for insulin, C-peptide, and homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance in the intervention arm were -23%, -16%, and -25%, respectively, compared with +6.9%, +7.5%, and +6.4%, respectively, in the control arm (all p for intervention effects ≤ .003). No significant between-arm differences were detected for the other biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight/obese men with PCa undergoing AS who participated in a lifestyle-based weight loss intervention successfully met weight loss goals with this reproducible lifestyle intervention and experienced improvements in glucose-regulation biomarkers associated with PCa progression.

Randomized Controlled Trial of Ultrasonic Propulsion-Facilitated Clearance of Residual Kidney Stone Fragments vs Observation.

PURPOSE: Ultrasonic propulsion is an investigational procedure for awake patients. Our purpose was to evaluate whether ultrasonic propulsion to facilitate residual kidney stone fragment clearance reduced relapse. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This multicenter, prospective, open-label, randomized, controlled trial used single block randomization (1:1) without masking. Adults with residual fragments (individually ≤5 mm) were enrolled. Primary outcome was relapse as measured by stone growth, a stone-related urgent medical visit, or surgery by 5 years or study end. Secondary outcomes were fragment passage within 3 weeks and adverse events within 90 days. Cumulative incidence of relapse was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method. Log-rank test was used to compare the treatment (ultrasonic propulsion) and control (observation) groups. RESULTS: The trial was conducted from May 9, 2015, through April 6, 2024. Median follow-up (interquartile range) was 3.0 (1.8-3.2) years. The treatment group (n = 40) had longer time to relapse than the control group (n = 42; P < .003). The restricted mean time-to-relapse was 52% longer in the treatment group than in the control group (1530 ± 92 days vs 1009 ± 118 days), and the risk of relapse was lower (hazard ratio 0.30, 95% CI 0.13-0.68) with 8 of 40 and 21 of 42 participants, respectively, experiencing relapse. Omitting 3 participants not asked about passage, 24 treatment (63%) and 2 control (5%) participants passed fragments within 3 weeks of treatment. adverse events were mild, transient, and self-resolving, and were reported in 25 treated participants (63%) and 17 controls (40%). CONCLUSIONS: Ultrasonic propulsion reduced relapse and added minimal risk. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NO.: NCT02028559.

NCCN Guidelines Insights: Bladder Cancer, Version 5.2018.

The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology for Bladder Cancer provide recommendations for the diagnosis, evaluation, treatment, and follow-up of patients with bladder cancer. These NCCN Guidelines Insights discuss important updates to the 2018 version of the guidelines, including implications of the 8th edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual on treatment of muscle-invasive bladder cancer and incorporating newly approved immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies into treatment options for patients with locally advanced or metastatic disease.

Bladder Cancer, Version 5.2017, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology.

This selection from the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) for Bladder Cancer focuses on systemic therapy for muscle-invasive urothelial bladder cancer, as substantial revisions were made in the 2017 updates, such as new recommendations for nivolumab, pembrolizumab, atezolizumab, durvalumab, and avelumab. The complete version of the NCCN Guidelines for Bladder Cancer addresses additional aspects of the management of bladder cancer, including non-muscle-invasive urothelial bladder cancer and nonurothelial histologies, as well as staging, evaluation, and follow-up.

Root Causes and Modifiability of 30-Day Hospital Readmissions after Radical Cystectomy for Bladder Cancer.

PURPOSE: Radical cystectomy is associated with high complication and rehospitalization rates. An understanding of the root causes of hospital readmissions and the modifiability of factors contributing to readmissions may decrease the morbidity associated with radical cystectomy. We characterize the indications for rehospitalization following radical cystectomy, and determine whether these indications represent immutable patient disease and procedure factors or whether they are modifiable. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From MarketScan® databases we identified patients younger than 65 years with a diagnosis of bladder cancer who underwent radical cystectomy between 2008 and 2011 and were readmitted to the hospital within 30 days of radical cystectomy. All associated ICD-9 codes in the index admission, subsequent outpatient claims and readmission claims were independently reviewed by 3 surgeons to determine a root cause of rehospitalization. Causes were broadly categorized as medical, surgical or infectious, and reviewers determined whether the readmission was modifiable. Multivariate logistical regression models were used to identify factors associated with rehospitalization. RESULTS: A total of 1,163 patients were included in the study and 242 (21%) were readmitted to the hospital within 30 days. Of these readmissions 26% were considered modifiable (kappa=0.71). Of the nonmodifiable readmissions an infectious cause accounted for 52% and a medical cause accounted for 48%, whereas of the modifiable readmissions 62% were due to surgical causes, 30% to medical and 8% to infectious causes. On multivariate analysis only discharge to a skilled nursing facility was associated with modifiable (OR 6.12, 95% CI 2.32-16.14) or nonmodifiable (OR 3.27, 95% CI 1.63-6.53) hospital readmissions. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of rehospitalizations after radical cystectomy are attributable its inherent morbidity. However, optimization of aspects of peri-cystectomy care could minimize the morbidity of radical cystectomy.

NCCN Guidelines Insights: Bladder Cancer, Version 2.2016.

These NCCN Guidelines Insights discuss the major recent updates to the NCCN Guidelines for Bladder Cancer based on the review of the evidence in conjunction with the expert opinion of the panel. Recent updates include (1) refining the recommendation of intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guérin, (2) strengthening the recommendations for perioperative systemic chemotherapy, and (3) incorporating immunotherapy into second-line therapy for locally advanced or metastatic disease. These NCCN Guidelines Insights further discuss factors that affect integration of these recommendations into clinical practice.

Metformin effects on biochemical recurrence and metabolic signaling in the prostate.

BACKGROUND: Metformin has received considerable attention as a potential anti-cancer agent. Animal and in-vitro prostate cancer (PCa) models have demonstrated decreased tumor growth with metformin, however the precise mechanisms are unknown. We examine the effects of metformin on PCa biochemical recurrence (BCR) in a large clinical database followed by evaluating metabolic signaling changes in a cohort of men undergoing prostate needle biopsy (PNB). METHODS: Men treated for localized PCa were identified in a comprehensive clinical database between 2001 and 2010. Cox regression was performed to determine association with BCR relative to metformin use. We next identified a separate case-control cohort of men undergoing prostate needle biopsy (PNB) stratified by metformin use. Differences in mean IHC scores were compared with linear regression for phosphorylated IR, IGF-IR, AKT, and AMPK. RESULTS: One thousand seven hundred and thirty four men were evaluated for BCR with mean follow up of 41 months (range 1-121 months). "Ever" metformin use was not associated with BCR (HR 1.12, 0.77-1.65), however men reporting both pre/post-treatment metformin use had a 45% reduction in BCR (HR = 0.55 (0.31-0.96)). For the tissue-based study, 48 metformin users and 42 controls underwent PNB. Significantly greater staining in phosphorylated nuclear (p-IR, p-AKT) and cytoplasmic (p-IR, p-IGF-1R) insulin signaling proteins were seen in patients with PCa detected compared to those with negative PNB (P-values all <0.006). When stratified by metformin use, IGF-1R remained significantly elevated (P = 0.01) in men with PCa detected whereas p-AMPK (P = 0.05) was elevated only in those without PCa. CONCLUSION: Metformin use is associated with reduced BCR after treatment of localized PCa when considering pre-diagnostic and cumulative dosing. In men with cancer detected on PNB, insulin signaling markers were significantly elevated compared to negative PNB patients. The finding of IGF-1R elevation in positive PNBs versus p-AMPK elevation in negative PNBs suggests altered metabolic pathway activation precipitated by metformin use.

Guideline-concordant cancer care and survival among American Indian/Alaskan Native patients.

BACKGROUND: American Indians/Alaskan Natives (AI/ANs) have the worst 5-year cancer survival of all racial/ethnic groups in the United States. Causes for this disparity are unknown. The authors of this report examined the receipt of cancer treatment among AI/AN patients compared with white patients. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of 338,204 patients who were diagnosed at age ≥65 years with breast, colon, lung, or prostate cancer between 1996 and 2005 in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results-Medicare database. Nationally accepted guidelines for surgical and adjuvant therapy and surveillance were selected as metrics of optimal, guideline-concordant care. Treatment analyses compared AI/ANs with matched whites. RESULTS: Across cancer types, AI/ANs were less likely to receive optimal cancer treatment and were less likely to undergo surgery (P ≤ .025 for all cancers). Adjuvant therapy rates were significantly lower for AI/AN patients with breast cancer (P < .001) and colon cancer (P = .001). Rates of post-treatment surveillance also were lower among AI/ANs and were statistically significantly lower for AI/AN patients with breast cancer (P = .002) and prostate cancer (P < .001). Nonreceipt of optimal cancer treatment was associated with significantly worse survival across cancer types. Disease-specific survival for those who did not undergo surgery was significantly lower for patients with breast cancer (hazard ratio [HR], 0.62), colon cancer (HR, 0.74), prostate cancer (HR, 0.52), and lung cancer (HR, 0.36). Survival rates also were significantly lower for those patients who did not receive adjuvant therapy for breast cancer (HR, 0.56), colon cancer (HR, 0.59), or prostate cancer (HR, 0.81; all 95% confidence intervals were <1.0). CONCLUSIONS: Fewer AI/AN patients than white patients received guideline-concordant cancer treatment across the 4 most common cancers. Efforts to explain these differences are critical to improving cancer care and survival for AI/AN patients.

Identification of underserved areas for urologic cancer care.

BACKGROUND: The delivery of urologic oncology care is susceptible to regional variation. In the current study, the authors sought to define patterns of care for patients undergoing genitourinary cancer surgery to identify underserved areas for urologic cancer care in Washington State. METHODS: The authors accessed the Washington State Comprehensive Hospital Abstract Reporting System from 2003 through 2007. They identified patients undergoing radical prostatectomy, radical cystectomy (RC), partial nephrectomy (PN), radical nephrectomy, and transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). TURP was included for comparison as a reference procedure indicative of access to urologic care. Hospital service areas (HSAs) are where the majority of local patients are hospitalized; hospital referral regions (HRR) are where most patients receive tertiary care. The authors created multivariate hierarchical logistic regression models to examine patient and HSA characteristics associated with the receipt of urologic oncology care out of the HRR for each procedure. RESULTS: Greater than one-half of patients went out of their HRR in 7 HSAs (11%) for radical prostatectomy, 3 HSAs (5%) for radical nephrectomy, 10 HSAs (15%) for PN, and 14 HSAs (22%) for RC. No HSAs had high export rates for TURP. Few patient factors were found to be associated with surgical care out of the HRR. High-export HSAs for PN and RC exhibited lower socioeconomic characteristics than low-export HSAs, adjusting for HSA population, race, and HSA procedure rates for PN and RC. CONCLUSIONS: Patients living in areas with lower socioeconomic status have a greater need to travel for complex urologic surgery. Consideration of geographic delineation in the delivery of urologic oncology care may aid in regional quality improvement initiatives.

Use and outcomes of extended antibiotic prophylaxis in urological cancer surgery.

PURPOSE: Although perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis prevents postoperative infectious complications, national guidelines recommend cessation of antibiotics within 24 hours after the procedure. Extended antibiotic prophylaxis beyond 24 hours may contribute to hospital acquired infections such as Clostridium difficile colitis. We evaluated practice patterns of antibiotic prophylaxis in genitourinary cancer surgery and assessed the impact of antibiotic prophylaxis on hospital acquired C. difficile infections. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified 59,184 patients treated with radical prostatectomy, 27,921 who underwent partial or radical nephrectomy, and 5,425 treated with radical cystectomy for prostate, kidney and bladder cancers, respectively, from the Premier Perspective Database (Premier Inc., Charlotte, North Carolina) from 2007 to 2012. We constructed hierarchical linear regression models to identify patient and hospital factors associated with extended antibiotic prophylaxis. We evaluated the association between extended antibiotic prophylaxis and C. difficile infections for patients who underwent partial or radical nephrectomy and radical cystectomy with multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: Surgery specific models demonstrated that hospital identity was associated with a substantial proportion of the variation in extended antibiotic prophylaxis (20% to 35% for radical prostatectomy, partial or radical nephrectomy, and radical cystectomy). Postoperative C. difficile colitis occurred in 0.02% of patients treated with radical prostatectomy, 0.23% of those treated with partial or radical nephrectomy and 1.7% of those treated with radical cystectomy. On multivariate analysis extended antibiotic prophylaxis was associated with higher odds of C. difficile infection after partial or radical nephrectomy (OR 3.79, 95% CI 2.46-5.84) and radical cystectomy (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.12-2.39). CONCLUSIONS: Antibiotics may be overused after genitourinary cancer surgery and this overuse is associated with hospital acquired C. difficile colitis. Efforts are needed to encourage greater compliance with evidence-based approaches to postoperative care.

Treatment of early-stage prostate cancer among rural and urban patients.

BACKGROUND: Geographic barriers and limited availability of cancer specialists may influence early prostate cancer treatment options for rural men. This study compares receipt of different early prostate cancer treatments between rural and urban patients. METHODS: Using 2004-2006 SEER Limited-Use Data, 51,982 early prostate cancer patients were identified (T1c, T2a, T2b, T2c, T2NOS; no metastases) who were most likely to benefit from definitive treatment (< 75 years old, Gleason score < 8, PSA ≤ 20). Definitive treatment included radical prostatectomy, daily external beam radiation for 5 to 8 weeks, brachytherapy, or combination external beam radiation/brachytherapy. Adjusted definitive treatment rates were calculated by rural-urban residence overall, and for different sociodemographic and cancer characteristics, and different states based on logistic regression analyses, using general estimating equation methods to account for clustering by county. RESULTS: Adjusted definitive treatment rates were lower for rural (83.7%) than urban (87.1%) patients with early-stage prostate cancer (P ≤ .01). Rural men were more likely than urban men to receive non-definitive surgical treatment and no initial treatment. The lowest definitive treatment rates were among rural subgroups: 70 to 74 years (73.9%), African Americans (75.6%), American Indians/Alaska Natives (77.8%), single/separated/divorced (76.8%), living in New Mexico (69.3%), and living in counties with persistent poverty (79.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Between 2004 and 2006, this adjusted analysis found that men who were living in rural areas were less likely to receive definitive treatment for their early-stage prostate cancer than those living in urban areas. Certain rural patient groups with prostate cancer need particular attention to ensure their access to appropriate treatment. Rural providers, rural health care systems, and cancer advocacy and support organizations should ensure resources are in place so that the most vulnerable rural groups (men between 60 and 74 years of age; African American men; men who are single, separated, or divorced; and men living in rural New Mexico) can make informed prostate cancer treatment choices based on their preferences.

Penile cancer: Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the penis represents approximately 0.5% of all cancers among men in the United States and other developed countries. Although rare, it is associated with significant disfigurement, and only half of the patients survive beyond 5 years. Proper evaluation of both the primary lesion and lymph nodes is critical, because nodal involvement is the most important factor of survival. The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology for Penile Cancer provide recommendations on the diagnosis and management of this devastating disease based on evidence and expert consensus.

Bladder cancer.

Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in the United States. Urothelial carcinoma that originates from the urinary bladder is the most common subtype. These NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) provide recommendations on the diagnosis and management of non-muscle-invasive and muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. This version of the guidelines provides extensive reorganization and updates on the principles of chemotherapy management.

A Phase 1/2 Study of Rapamycin and Cisplatin/Gemcitabine for Treatment of Patients With Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Cisplatin-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) followed by cystectomy is the standard for muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC), however, NAC confers only a small survival benefit and new strategies are needed to increase its efficacy. Pre-clinical data suggest that in response to DNA damage the tumor microenvironment (TME) adopts a paracrine secretory phenotype dependent on mTOR signaling which may provide an escape mechanism for tumor resistance, thus offering an opportunity to increase NAC effectiveness with mTOR blockade. PATIENTS & METHODS: We conducted a phase I/II clinical trial to assess the safety and efficacy of gemcitabine-cisplatin-rapamycin combination. Grapefruit juice was administered to enhance rapamycin pharmacokinetics by inhibiting intestinal enzymatic degradation. Phase I was a dose determination/safety study followed by a single arm Phase II study of NAC prior to radical cystectomy evaluating pathologic response with a 26% pCR rate target. RESULTS: In phase I, 6 patients enrolled, and the phase 2 dose of 35 mg rapamycin established. Fifteen patients enrolled in phase II; 13 were evaluable. Rapamycin was tolerated without serious adverse events. At the preplanned analysis, the complete response rate (23%) did not meet the prespecified level for continuing and the study was stopped due to futility. With immunohistochemistry, successful suppression of the mTOR signaling pathway in the tumor was achieved while limited mTOR activity was seen in the TME. CONCLUSION: Adding rapamycin to gemcitabine-cisplatin therapy for patients with MIBC was well tolerated but failed to improve therapeutic efficacy despite evidence of mTOR blockade in tumor cells. Further efforts to understand the role of the tumor microenvironment in chemotherapy resistance is needed.

Long-term use of supplemental vitamins and minerals does not reduce the risk of urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder in the VITamins And Lifestyle study.

PURPOSE: Urothelial carcinoma has the highest lifetime treatment cost of any cancer, making it an ideal target for preventative therapies. Previous work has suggested that certain vitamin and mineral supplements may reduce the risk of urothelial carcinoma. We used the prospective VITamins And Lifestyle cohort to examine the association of all commonly taken vitamin and mineral supplements as well as 6 common anti-inflammatory supplements with incident urothelial carcinoma in a United States population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 77,050 eligible VITAL participants completed a detailed questionnaire at baseline on supplement use and cancer risk factors. After 6 years of followup 330 incident urothelial carcinoma cases in the cohort were identified via linkage to the Seattle-Puget Sound SEER cancer registry. We analyzed use of supplemental vitamins (multivitamins, beta-carotene, retinol, folic acid, and vitamins B1, B3, B6, B12, C, D and E), minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc and selenium) and anti-inflammatory supplements (glucosamine, chondroitin, saw palmetto, ginkgo biloba, fish oil and garlic). For each supplement the hazard ratios (risk ratios) for urothelial carcinoma comparing each category of users to nonusers, and 95% CIs, were determined using Cox proportional hazards regression, adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS: None of the vitamin, mineral or anti-inflammatory supplements was significantly associated with urothelial carcinoma risk in age adjusted or multivariate models. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study do not support the use of commonly taken vitamin or mineral supplements or 6 common anti-inflammatory supplements for the chemoprevention of urothelial carcinoma.

Hospital volume and 90-day mortality risk after radical cystectomy: a population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Hospital cystectomy volume has been associated with in-hospital perioperative mortality in previous studies. In this study, we examine the relationship between hospital cystectomy volume and 90-day mortality in a population-based cohort of patients undergoing cystectomy for bladder cancer. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study using population from the State of Washington Comprehensive Hospital Abstract Reporting System (CHARS) database. We examined the association between hospital cystectomy volume (categorized into volume tertiles) and cumulative 90-day mortality in patients undergoing cystectomy for bladder cancer. Multivariate regression was used to adjust for patient age, comorbid disease, year of surgery, and gender. Standard errors were clustered by discharge hospital. RESULTS: We identified 823 patients who underwent cystectomy for bladder cancer at 39 unique hospitals in 2003-2007. The unadjusted cumulative 90-day cumulative mortality was 5.4, 6.9, and 8.4% for patients discharged from hospitals in the high, medium, and low volume tertiles, respectively (P=0.35). In the multivariate analysis, the patients undergoing cystectomy who were discharged from hospitals in the highest volume tertile had a lower risk of death in the first 90 days postoperatively compared to patients discharged from hospitals in the low volume tertile, though the finding was not statistically significant (OR=0.68, 95% CI 0.29-1.56). CONCLUSIONS: Ninety-day cumulative mortality after cystectomy for bladder cancer is significant and may be associated with hospital cystectomy volume.

Disseminated tumor cells in prostate cancer patients after radical prostatectomy and without evidence of disease predicts biochemical recurrence.

PURPOSE: Men with apparently localized prostate cancer often relapse years after radical prostatectomy. We sought to determine if epithelial-like cells identified from bone marrow in patients after radical prostatectomy, commonly called disseminated tumor cells (DTC), were associated with biochemical recurrence. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We obtained bone marrow aspirates from 569 men prior to radical prostatectomy and from 34 healthy men with prostate-specific antigens <2.5 ng/mL to establish a comparison group. Additionally, an analytic cohort consisting of 98 patients with no evidence of disease (NED) after radical prostatectomy was established to evaluate the relationship between DTC and biochemical recurrence. Epithelial cells in the bone marrow were detected by magnetic bead enrichment with antibodies to CD45 and CD61 (negative selection) followed by antibodies to human epithelial antigen (positive selection) and confirmation with FITC-labeled anti-BerEP4 antibody. RESULTS: DTC were present in 72% (408 of 569) of patients prior to radical prostatectomy. There was no correlation with pathologic stage, Gleason grade, or preoperative prostate-specific antigens. Three of 34 controls (8.8%) had DTC present. In patients with NED after radical prostatectomy, DTC were present in 56 of 98 (57%). DTC were detected in 12 of 14 (86%) NED patients after radical prostatectomy who subsequently suffered biochemical recurrence. The presence of DTC in NED patients was an independent predictor of recurrence (hazard ratio 6.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.03-45.9). CONCLUSIONS: Approximately 70% of men undergoing radical prostatectomy had DTC detected in their bone marrow prior to surgery, suggesting that these cells escape early in the disease. Although preoperative DTC status does not correlate with pathologic risk factors, persistence of DTC after radical prostatectomy in NED patients was an independent predictor of recurrence.

Predictors of upper tract urothelial cell carcinoma after primary bladder cancer: a population based analysis.

PURPOSE: Upper tract tumors occur in 2% to 7% of patients after primary bladder cancer, making surveillance upper tract imaging part of bladder cancer management. We determined the cumulative incidence of secondary upper tract tumor development after primary bladder cancer and risk factors for secondary upper tract tumors using contemporary population based data. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified patients with bladder cancer in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results cancer registry from 1988 to 2003. All subsequent cases of upper tract tumors were ascertained. Multivariate Cox survival analysis was performed to evaluate risk factors for secondary upper tract tumors after adjusting for age, race, gender, stage, grade, tumor location, surgical management, year of diagnosis and tumor registry. RESULTS: Of 99,338 patients with bladder cancer upper tract tumors developed in 768 (0.8%). The median time to secondary upper tract tumors was 33 months. Of upper tract tumors 71% developed within 5 years of bladder cancer diagnosis and only 6% developed more than 10 years after diagnosis. On multivariate analysis high grade (HR 2.16, 95% CI 1.71-2.74) and nonmuscle invasive disease (Ta, T1) (HR 1.16, 95% CI 0.97-1.39) were predictive of upper tract tumor recurrence. Upper tract disease was more likely to develop in patients with tumors at the trigone/ureteral orifice (HR 1.76, 95% CI 1.48-2.09). CONCLUSIONS: Upper tract tumors developed in 0.8% of patients with bladder cancer. Although late cases occurred, upper tract tumors developed in the majority of cases within 3 years. Pathological factors such as tumor grade, stage and location were predictive of upper tract recurrence. These findings may be useful for tailoring surveillance protocols in patients with bladder cancer.

The association between extent of lymphadenectomy and survival among patients with lymph node metastases undergoing radical cystectomy.

BACKGROUND: Long-term survival in patients with lymph node-positive bladder cancer who undergo cystectomy suggests a therapeutic role for lymphadenectomy. The objective of this study was to describe the association between extent of lymphadenectomy and survival in lymph node-positive patients who underwent radical cystectomy. METHODS: The cohort consisted of patients from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry with transitional cell carcinoma who underwent cystectomy with lymphadenectomy and had at least 1 positive lymph node and no distant metastases. The Kaplan-Meier method and multivariate Cox proportional-hazards regression analyses were used to estimate differences in survival among different lymphadenectomy variables. RESULTS: In total, 1260 patients had at least 1 positive lymph node. A median of 9 lymph nodes were removed (range, 1-48 lymph nodes) with a median of 2 positive lymph nodes (range, 1-18 positive lymph nodes), and the median lymph node density was 22%. In multivariate analysis controlling for patient demographics, tumor classification, and year of diagnosis, the number of positive and total lymph nodes removed remained independent predictors of survival. There was an inverse association between the number of lymph nodes removed and the risk of death for all quartiles. Removal of > 10 lymph nodes was associated with increased overall survival (hazard ratio, 0.52; 95% confidence interval, 0.43-0.64). In addition, with a lymph node density from 0.1% to 12.5% as the referent group, each higher quartile experienced worse survival. CONCLUSIONS: An increased number of lymph nodes removed at the time of cystectomy was associated with improved survival in patients with lymph node-positive bladder cancer. Improved survival was observed at a lower lymph node density threshold than previously reported. The current findings support performing a more extensive lymphadenectomy at the time of cystectomy.

Radiation therapy for prostate cancer increases subsequent risk of bladder and rectal cancer: a population based cohort study.

PURPOSE: Pre-prostate specific antigen era series demonstrated an increased risk of bladder cancer and rectal cancer in men who received radiotherapy for prostate cancer. We estimated the risk of secondary bladder cancer and rectal cancer after prostate radiotherapy using a contemporary population based cohort. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified 243,082 men in the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results database who underwent radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy for prostate cancer between 1988 and 2003. We estimated the incidence rate, standardized incidence ratio and age adjusted incidence rate ratio of subsequent bladder cancer and rectal cancer associated with radical prostatectomy, external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy, and a combination of external beam radiotherapy and brachytherapy. RESULTS: The relative risk of bladder cancer developing after external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy and external beam radiotherapy-brachytherapy compared to radical prostatectomy was 1.88, 1.52 and 1.85, respectively. Compared to the general United States population the standardized incidence ratio for bladder cancer developing after radical prostatectomy, external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy and external beam radiotherapy-brachytherapy was 0.99, 1.42, 1.10 and 1.39, respectively. The relative risk of rectal cancer developing after external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy and external beam radiotherapy-brachytherapy compared to radical prostatectomy was 1.26, 1.08 and 1.21, respectively. The standardized incidence ratio for rectal cancer developing after radical prostatectomy, external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy and external beam radiotherapy-brachytherapy was 0.91, 0.99, 0.68 and 0.86, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Men who receive radiotherapy for localized prostate cancer have an increased risk of bladder cancer compared to patients undergoing radical prostatectomy and compared to the general population. The risk of rectal cancer is increased in patients who receive external beam radiotherapy compared to radical prostatectomy. Patients should be counseled appropriately regarding these risks.