Signal transmission through the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) transmembrane helices.

The atomic-level mechanisms by which G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transmit extracellular ligand binding events through their transmembrane helices to activate intracellular G proteins remain unclear. Using a comprehensive library of mutations covering all 352 residues of the GPCR CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), we identified 41 amino acids that are required for signaling induced by the chemokine ligand CXCL12 (stromal cell-derived factor 1). CXCR4 variants with each of these mutations do not signal properly but remain folded, based on receptor surface trafficking, reactivity to conformationally sensitive monoclonal antibodies, and ligand binding. When visualized on the structure of CXCR4, the majority of these residues form a continuous intramolecular signaling chain through the transmembrane helices; this chain connects chemokine binding residues on the extracellular side of CXCR4 to G protein-coupling residues on its intracellular side. Integrated into a cohesive model of signal transmission, these CXCR4 residues cluster into five functional groups that mediate (i) chemokine engagement, (ii) signal initiation, (iii) signal propagation, (iv) microswitch activation, and (v) G protein coupling. Propagation of the signal passes through a "hydrophobic bridge" on helix VI that coordinates with nearly every known GPCR signaling motif. Our results agree with known conserved mechanisms of GPCR activation and significantly expand on understanding the structural principles of CXCR4 signaling.

Atomic-level functional model of dengue virus Envelope protein infectivity.

A number of structures have been solved for the Envelope (E) protein from dengue virus and closely related flaviviruses, providing detailed pictures of the conformational states of the protein at different stages of infectivity. However, the key functional residues responsible for mediating the dynamic changes between these structures remain largely unknown. Using a comprehensive library of functional point mutations covering all 390 residues of the dengue virus E protein ectodomain, we identified residues that are critical for virus infectivity, but that do not affect E protein expression, folding, virion assembly, or budding. The locations and atomic interactions of these critical residues within different structures representing distinct fusogenic conformations help to explain how E protein (i) regulates fusion-loop exposure by shielding, tethering, and triggering its release; (ii) enables hinge movements between E domain interfaces during triggered structural transformations; and (iii) drives membrane fusion through late-stage zipper contacts with stem. These results provide structural targets for drug and vaccine development and integrate the findings from structural studies and isolated mutagenesis efforts into a cohesive model that explains how specific residues in this class II viral fusion protein enable virus infectivity.

Characterization of the bispecific VHH antibody gefurulimab (ALXN1720) targeting complement component 5, and designed for low volume subcutaneous administration.

The bispecific antibody gefurulimab (also known as ALXN1720) was developed to provide patients with a subcutaneous treatment option for chronic disorders involving activation of the terminal complement pathway. Gefurulimab blocks the enzymatic cleavage of complement component 5 (C5) into the biologically active C5a and C5b fragments, which triggers activation of the terminal complement cascade. Heavy-chain variable region antigen-binding fragment (VHH) antibodies targeting C5 and human serum albumin (HSA) were isolated from llama immune-based libraries and humanized. Gefurulimab comprises an N-terminal albumin-binding VHH connected to a C-terminal C5-binding VHH via a flexible linker. The purified bispecific VHH antibody has the expected exact size by mass spectrometry and can be formulated at greater than 100 mg/mL. Gefurulimab binds tightly to human C5 and HSA with dissociation rate constants at pH 7.4 of 54 pM and 0.9 nM, respectively, and cross-reacts with C5 and serum albumin from cynomolgus monkeys. Gefurulimab can associate with C5 and albumin simultaneously, and potently inhibits the terminal complement activity from human serum initiated by any of the three complement pathways in Wieslab assays. Electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography revealed that the isolated C5-binding VHH recognizes the macroglobulin (MG) 4 and MG5 domains of the antigen and thereby is suggested to sterically prevent C5 binding to its activating convertase. Gefurulimab also inhibits complement activity supported by the rare C5 allelic variant featuring an R885H substitution in the MG7 domain. Taken together, these data suggest that gefurulimab may be a promising candidate for the potential treatment of complement-mediated disorders.

CD4 binding affinity determines human immunodeficiency virus type 1-induced alpha interferon production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC) are major producers of type I interferons (IFN) in response to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. To better define the underlying mechanisms, we studied the magnitude of alpha IFN (IFN-alpha) induction by recombinant viruses containing changes in the Env protein that impair or disrupt CD4 binding or expressing primary env alleles with differential coreceptor tropism. We found that the CD4 binding affinity but not the viral coreceptor usage is critical for the attachment of autofluorescing HIV-1 to PDC and for subsequent IFN-alpha induction. Our results illustrate the importance of the gp120-CD4 interaction in determining HIV-1-induced immune stimulation via IFN-alpha production.

Focused dampening of antibody response to the immunodominant variable loops by engineered soluble gp140.

Immunization studies with modified gp120 monomers using a hyperglycosylation strategy, in which undesired epitopes are masked by the selective incorporation of N-linked glycans, were described in a previous paper (Selvarajah S, et al., J Virol 2000;79:12148-12163). In this report, we applied the hyperglycosylation strategy to soluble uncleaved gp140 trimers to improve the antigenic and immunogenic profile in the context of a trimeric conformation of the immunogen. The JR-FL gp140 gene was added upstream of a soluble trimerization domain of chicken cartilage matrix (CART) protein and expressed predominantly as a trimer and called gp140-CART wild-type. In the hyperglycosylated gp140-CART mCHO(V) mutant, four extra sugar attachment motifs on the variable loops helped mask epitope recognition by monoclonal antibodies specific to the variable loops. The gp140-CART mCHO(V) mutant and gp140-CART wild-type soluble trimer protein were used to immunize rabbits. The gp140-CART mCHO(V) immune sera had reduced antibody response to the variable loops compared to gp140-CART wild-type immune sera as shown by peptide reactivity, competition assays, and the reduced ability of sera to neutralize SF162 virus (a variable loop neutralization-sensitive virus). The antibody response to the CD4 binding site was retained in the gp140-CART mCHO(V) mutant immune sera similar to gp140-CART wild-type immune sera. The results demonstrate that the strategy of hyperglycosylation is clearly useful in the context of a compact form of Env immunogen such as the soluble gp140 trimer in dampening responses to variable loops while maintaining responses to an important epitope, the CD4 binding site. However, the results also show that in order to elicit broadly neutralizing antibodies that target conserved epitopes, the soluble gp140 trimer immunogen template will require further modifications.

The Bitter Taste Receptor TAS2R16 Achieves High Specificity and Accommodates Diverse Glycoside Ligands by using a Two-faced Binding Pocket.

Although bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs) are important for human health, little is known of the determinants of ligand specificity. TAS2Rs such as TAS2R16 help define gustatory perception and dietary preferences that ultimately influence human health and disease. Each TAS2R must accommodate a broad diversity of chemical structures while simultaneously achieving high specificity so that diverse bitter toxins can be detected without all foods tasting bitter. However, how these G protein-coupled receptors achieve this balance is poorly understood. Here we used a comprehensive mutation library of human TAS2R16 to map its interactions with existing and novel agonists. We identified 13 TAS2R16 residues that contribute to ligand specificity and 38 residues whose mutation eliminated signal transduction by all ligands, providing a comprehensive assessment of how this GPCR binds and signals. Our data suggest a model in which hydrophobic residues on TM3 and TM7 form a broad ligand-binding pocket that can accommodate the diverse structural features of ß-glycoside ligands while still achieving high specificity.

Monoclonal antibody therapeutics with up to five specificities: functional enhancement through fusion of target-specific peptides.

The recognition that few human diseases are thoroughly addressed by mono-specific, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) continues to drive the development of antibody therapeutics with additional specificities and enhanced activity. Historically, efforts to engineer additional antigen recognition into molecules have relied predominantly on the reformatting of immunoglobulin domains. In this report we describe a series of fully functional mAbs to which additional specificities have been imparted through the recombinant fusion of relatively short polypeptides sequences. The sequences are selected for binding to a particular target from combinatorial libraries that express linear, disulfide-constrained, or domain-based structures. The potential for fusion of peptides to the N- and C- termini of both the heavy and light chains affords the bivalent expression of up to four different peptides. The resulting molecules, called zybodies, can gain up to four additional specificities, while retaining the original functionality and specificity of the scaffold antibody. We explore the use of two clinically significant oncology antibodies, trastuzumab and cetuximab, as zybody scaffolds and demonstrate functional enhancements in each case. The affect of fusion position on both peptide and scaffold function is explored, and penta-specific zybodies are demonstrated to simultaneously engage five targets (ErbB2, EGFR, IGF-1R, Ang2 and integrin αvß3). Bispecific, trastuzumab-based zybodies targeting ErbB2 and Ang2 are shown to exhibit superior efficacy to trastuzumab in an angiogenesis-dependent xenograft tumor model. A cetuximab-based bispecific zybody that targeting EGFR and ErbB3 simultaneously disrupted multiple intracellular signaling pathways; inhibited tumor cell proliferation; and showed efficacy superior to that of cetuximab in a xenograft tumor model.

Simultaneous targeting of TNF and Ang2 with a novel bispecific antibody enhances efficacy in an in vivo model of arthritis.

Despite the clinical success of anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) therapies in the treatment of inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn disease and psoriasis, full control of the diseases only occurs in a subset of patients and there is a need for new therapeutics with improved efficacy against broader patient populations. One possible approach is to combine biological therapeutics, but both the cost of the therapeutics and the potential for additional toxicities needs to be considered. In addition to the various mediators of immune and inflammatory pathways, angiogenesis is reported to contribute substantially to the overall pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. The combination of an anti-angiogenic agent with anti-TNF into one molecule could be more efficacious without the risk of severe immunosuppression. To evaluate this approach with our Zybody technology, we generated bispecific antibodies that contain an Ang2 targeting peptide genetically fused to the anti-TNF antibody adalimumab (Humira®). The bispecific molecules retain the binding and functional characteristics of the anti-TNF antibody, but with additional activity that neutralizes Ang2. In a TNF transgenic mouse model of arthritis, the bispecific anti-TNF-Ang2 molecules showed a dose-dependent reduction in both clinical symptoms and histological scores that were significantly better than that achieved by adalimumab alone.

Dengue reporter virus particles for measuring neutralizing antibodies against each of the four dengue serotypes.

The lack of reliable, high-throughput tools for characterizing anti-dengue virus (DENV) antibodies in large numbers of serum samples has been an obstacle in understanding the impact of neutralizing antibodies on disease progression and vaccine efficacy. A reporter system using pseudoinfectious DENV reporter virus particles (RVPs) was previously developed by others to facilitate the genetic manipulation and biological characterization of DENV virions. In the current study, we demonstrate the diagnostic utility of DENV RVPs for measuring neutralizing antibodies in human serum samples against all four DENV serotypes, with attention to the suitability of DENV RVPs for large-scale, long-term studies. DENV RVPs used against human sera yielded serotype-specific responses and reproducible neutralization titers that were in statistical agreement with Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test (PRNT) results. DENV RVPs were also used to measure neutralization titers against the four DENV serotypes in a panel of human sera from a clinical study of dengue patients. The high-throughput capability, stability, rapidity, and reproducibility of assays using DENV RVPs offer advantages for detecting immune responses that can be applied to large-scale clinical studies of DENV infection and vaccination.

A simian immunodeficiency virus V3 loop mutant that does not efficiently use CCR5 or common alternative coreceptors is moderately attenuated in vivo.

Sexually transmitted HIV-1 strains utilize the chemokine receptor CCR5 for viral entry and inhibitors targeting this coreceptor offer great promise for antiretroviral therapy. They also raise the question, however, whether viral variants exhibiting altered coreceptor interactions and resistance against these antiviral agents might still be pathogenic. In the present study, we analyzed a SIVmac239 envelope (Env) mutant (239DL) containing two mutations in the V3 loop which reduced viral entry via CCR5 by 10- to 20-fold, disrupted utilization of common alternative SIV coreceptors and changed the way Env engaged CCR5. To evaluate its replicative capacity and pathogenic potential in vivo we infected six rhesus macaques with 239DL. We found that 239DL replication was only slightly attenuated early during infection. Thereafter, a D324V change, which restored efficient CCR5 usage and coincided with 239wt-like levels of viral replication, emerged in two animals. In contrast, the viral geno- and phenotype remained stable in the other four rhesus macaques. Although these animals had about 100-fold reduced viral RNA loads relative to 239wt-infected macaques, they showed pronounced CD4 T-cell depletion in the intestinal lamina propria, and one developed opportunistic infections and died with simian AIDS. Thus, changes in the V3 loop that diminished CCR5 usage and altered Env interactions with CCR5 reduced the pathogenic potential of SIVmac in rhesus macaques but did not abolish it entirely.

A rapid and quantitative assay for measuring antibody-mediated neutralization of West Nile virus infection.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus within the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex that is responsible for causing West Nile encephalitis in humans. The surface of WNV virions is covered by a highly ordered icosahedral array of envelope proteins that is responsible for mediating attachment and fusion with target cells. These envelope proteins are also primary targets for the generation of neutralizing antibodies in vivo. In this study, we describe a novel approach for measuring antibody-mediated neutralization of WNV infection using virus-like particles that measure infection as a function of reporter gene expression. These reporter virus particles (RVPs) are produced by complementation of a sub-genomic replicon with WNV structural proteins provided in trans using conventional DNA expression vectors. The precision and accuracy of this approach stem from an ability to measure the outcome of the interaction between antibody and viral antigens under conditions that satisfy the assumptions of the law of mass action as applied to virus neutralization. In addition to its quantitative strengths, this approach allows the production of WNV RVPs bearing the prM-E proteins of different WNV strains and mutants, offering considerable flexibility for the study of the humoral immune response to WNV in vitro. WNV RVPs are capable of only a single round of infection, can be used under BSL-2 conditions, and offer a rapid and quantitative approach for detecting virus entry and its inhibition by neutralizing antibody.

Comparing antigenicity and immunogenicity of engineered gp120.

We have engineered monomeric gp120 in such a way as to favorably present the conserved epitope for the broadly neutralizing antibody b12 while lowering the exposure of epitopes recognized by some weakly neutralizing and nonneutralizing antibodies. The work presented here describes the immune response in rabbits immunized with two prototype, engineered gp120s to explore the relationship between antigenicity and immunogenicity for these mutants. The GDMR gp120 mutant (residues 473 to 476 on gp120 altered from GDMR to AAAA) has a series of substitutions on the edge of the CD4 binding site (CD4bs), and the mCHO gp120 mutant has seven extra glycans relative to the wild-type protein. Importantly, serum mapping showed that both mutants did not elicit antibodies against a number of epitopes that had been targeted for dampening. The sera from rabbits immunized with the GDMR gp120 mutant neutralized some primary viruses at levels somewhat better than the wild-type gp120 immune sera as a result of an increased elicitation of anti-V3 antibodies. Unlike wild-type gp120 immune sera, GDMR gp120 immune sera failed to neutralize HXBc2, a T-cell line adapted (TCLA) virus. This was associated with loss of CD4bs/CD4-induced antibodies that neutralize TCLA but not primary viruses. The mCHO gp120 immune sera did not neutralize primary viruses to any significant degree, reflecting the masking of epitopes of even weakly neutralizing antibodies without eliciting b12-like antibodies. These results show that antibody responses to multiple epitopes on gp120 can be dampened. More precise focusing to a neutralizing epitope will likely require several iterations comparing antigenicity and immunogenicity of engineered proteins.

Characterization of neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus.

We produced nine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed against the West Nile virus E glycoprotein using three different immunization strategies: inactivated virus, naked DNA, and recombinant protein. Most of the MAbs bound to conformation dependent epitopes in domain III of the E protein. Four of the MAbs neutralized WNV infection and bound to the same region of domain III with high affinity. The neutralizing MAbs were obtained from mice immunized with inactivated virus alone or in combination with a DNA plasmid. In contrast, MAbs obtained by immunization with a soluble version of the E glycoprotein did not exhibit neutralizing activity. These non-neutralizing antibodies were cross-reactive with several other flaviviruses, including Saint Louis encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, Yellow Fever and Powassan viruses. Interestingly, some non-neutralizing MAbs bound with high affinity to domains I or III, indicating that both affinity and the precise epitope recognized by an antibody are important determinants of WNV neutralization.

An infectious West Nile virus that expresses a GFP reporter gene.

West Nile virus is a mosquito-borne, neurotropic flavivirus that causes encephalitis in humans and animals. Since being introduced into the Western hemisphere in 1999, WNV has spread rapidly across North America, identifying this virus as an important emerging pathogen. In this study, we developed a DNA-launched infectious molecular clone of WNV that encodes a GFP reporter gene. Transfection of cells with the plasmid encoding this recombinant virus (pWNII-GFP) resulted in the production of infectious WNV capable of expressing GFP at high levels shortly after infection of a variety of cell types, including primary neurons and dendritic cells. Infection of cells with WNII-GFP virus was productive, and could be inhibited with both monoclonal antibodies and interferon-beta, highlighting the potential of this system in the development and characterization of novel inhibitors and therapeutics for WNV infection. As expected, insertion of the reporter gene into the viral genome was associated with a reduced rate of viral replication, providing the selective pressure for the development of variants that no longer encoded the full-length reporter gene cassette. We anticipate this DNA-based, infectious WNV reporter virus will allow novel approaches for the study of WNV infection and its inhibition both in vitro and in vivo.

Determinants within gp120 and gp41 contribute to CD4 independence of SIV Envs.

Entry of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) into cells is mediated by binding of the viral envelope (Env) glycoprotein to cellular CD4 and chemokine receptor molecules. Interaction of the Env gp120 subunit with CD4 induces conformational changes that result in exposure of a conserved coreceptor binding site. The chemokine receptor CCR5 is the major coreceptor used for SIV entry. Many SIV Envs have the ability to bind directly to CCR5 in the absence of CD4, and CD4-independent SIVs have been shown to exhibit macrophage tropism, enhanced neutralization sensitivity, and reduced pathogenicity in nonhuman primates. SIVmac239 is a pathogenic, T-tropic, neutralization-resistant virus which encodes a CD4-dependent Env. By contrast, the SIVmac316 virus, which differs from 239 in Env by only eight amino acid substitutions and a gp41 cytoplasmic domain truncation, exhibits macrophage tropism in vitro, attenuated pathogenesis, neutralization sensitivity, and CD4-independent entry. We mapped the residues contributing to CD4-independent entry to substitutions at position 165 in the V1/V2 region of gp120 and position 573 of gp41. We find that substitution of both residues in replication-competent SIVmac239 virus results in gain of CD4 independence and enhanced neutralization sensitivity. By contrast, the converse substitutions placed in the background of SIVmac316 resulted in loss of CD4 independence and decreased neutralization sensitivity. Thus, as few as two amino acid changes can have dramatic effects on SIV Env phenotype.

Unique pattern of convergent envelope evolution in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected rapid progressor macaques: association with CD4-independent usage of CCR5.

The rate of disease development in simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection of macaques varies considerably among individual macaques. While the majority of macaques inoculated with pathogenic SIV develop AIDS within a period of 1 to 2 years, a minority exhibit a rapid disease course characterized by absence or transience of humoral and cellular immune responses and high levels of virus replication with widespread dissemination of SIV in macrophages and multinucleated giant cells. The goal of this study was to examine viral evolution in three SIVsmE543-3-inoculated rapid progressors to determine the contribution of viral evolution to the development of rapid disease and the effect of the absence of immune pressure upon viral evolution. PCR was used to amplify and clone the entire SIV genome from tissues collected at necropsy, and the course of viral evolution was assessed by env sequences cloned from sequential plasma samples of one rapid progressor (RP) macaque. The majority of sequence changes in RP macaques occurred in the envelope gene. Substitutions were observed in all three animals at specific conserved residues in envelope, including loss of a glycosylation site in V1/V2, a D-to-N/V substitution in a highly conserved GDPE motif, and a P-to-V/H/T substitution in the V3 loop analog. A cell-cell fusion assay revealed that representative env clones utilized CCR5 as a coreceptor, independent of CD4. The selection of specific substitutions in envelope in RP macaques suggests novel selection pressures on virus in such animals and suggests that viral variants that evolve in these animals may play a role in disease progression.

Functional replacement and positional dependence of homologous and heterologous L domains in equine infectious anemia virus replication.

We have previously demonstrated by Gag polyprotein budding assays that the Gag p9 protein of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) utilizes a unique YPDL motif as a late assembly domain (L domain) to facilitate release of the budding virus particle from the host cell plasma membrane (B. A. Puffer, L. J. Parent, J. W. Wills, and R. C. Montelaro, J. Virol. 71:6541-6546, 1997). To characterize in more detail the role of the YPDL L domain in the EIAV life cycle, we have examined the replication properties of a series of EIAV proviral mutants in which the parental YPDL L domain was replaced by a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) PTAP or Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) PPPY L domain in the p9 protein or by proviruses in which the parental YPDL or HIV-1 PTAP L domain was inserted in the viral matrix protein. The replication properties of these L-domain variants were examined with respect to Gag protein expression and processing, virus particle production, and virus infectivity. The data from these experiments indicate that (i) the YPDL L domain of p9 is required for replication competence (assembly and infectivity) in equine cell cultures, including the natural target equine macrophages; (ii) all of the functions of the YPDL L domain in the EIAV life cycle can be replaced by replacement of the parental YPDL sequence in p9 with the PTAP L-domain segment of HIV-1 p6 or the PPPY L domain of RSV p2b; and (iii) the assembly, but not infectivity, functions of the EIAV proviral YPDL substitution mutants can be partially rescued by inclusions of YPDL and PTAP L-domain sequences in the C-terminal region of the EIAV MA protein. Taken together, these data demonstrate that the EIAV YPDL L domain mediates distinct functions in viral budding and infectivity and that the HIV-1 PTAP and RSV PPPY L domains can effectively facilitate these dual replication functions in the context of the p9 protein. In light of the fact that YPDL, PTAP, and PPPY domains evidently have distinct characteristic binding specificities, these observations may indicate different portals into common cellular processes that mediate EIAV budding and infectivity, respectively.

Mutations in the C3 region of human and simian immunodeficiency virus envelope have differential effects on viral infectivity, replication, and CD4-dependency.

Residues within the highly conserved C3 region of human and simian immunodeficiency virus (HIV, SIV) envelope proteins (Envs) bind directly to the cellular CD4 receptor. However, substitutions of D385, which is critical for CD4 engagement along with other changes such as G382R, G383R, frequently arise in SIV mac-infected macaques. We investigated the influence of substitutions in the SIVmac and HIV-1 C3 regions on viral entry, dependence on CD4, and replication. Mutations flanking the C3 region such as G382R or V388A enhanced and changes within the C3 region (i.e., G383R or D385N) impaired SIVmac infectivity. Several naturally occurring sequence variations in the SIVmac Env C3 region facilitated CD4-independent membrane fusion but abrogated viral replication, suggesting that efficient infection requires additional changes elsewhere in Env. Substitutions of S365R and D368G in the HIV-1 Env, which correspond to G382 and D385 in SIVmac Env, consistently impaired viral infectivity. In contrast, mutation of D368N resulted in a virus that could not spread in cells expressing low levels of CD4, but which replicated efficiently when high levels of CD4 were expressed. Thus, changes in the C3 region of HIV-1 or SIVmac Env can have differential effects on viral infectivity and CD4-dependency. We conclude that substitutions flanking the C3 region in SIVmac Env such as G382R or V388A represent one step toward adaptation to growth in target cells expressing low CD4 levels, whereas changes within the C3 region that disrupt CD4 binding might indicate the emergence of CD4-independent variants at later stages of infection, which could potentially broaden viral tropism.

Retroviral mRNA nuclear export elements regulate protein function and virion assembly.

Rodent cells are notable for their inability to support normal assembly of HIV particles. In this report, we address possible causes for this defect by considering the hypothesis that mRNA-associated events occurring in the nucleus can regulate the activity of their encoded proteins in the cytoplasm. We show that altering the RNA nuclear export element used by HIV gag-pol mRNA from the Rev response element to the constitutive transport element restores both the trafficking of Gag to cellular membranes and efficient HIV assembly in murine cells. These results suggest that two phases of the HIV life cycle, RNA export and capsid assembly, that have hitherto been regarded as distinct are, in fact, linked. Thus, protein function and fate may depend upon the full and precise history of its encoding mRNA.

A replication-competent, neutralization-sensitive variant of simian immunodeficiency virus lacking 100 amino acids of envelope.

Coding sequences for the first two variable loops of the gp120 envelope glycoprotein were removed from simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) strain 239 (SIVmac239). This deletion encompassed 100 amino acids. The resulting virus replicated poorly after transfection into immortalized T-cell lines, with peak replication occurring only after 25 to 30 days. Limited passaging of SIVmac239DeltaV1V2 in cultures gave rise to a variant which had significantly improved replication kinetics but which retained the original 100-amino-acid deletion in gp120. Cloning and sequencing revealed 11 changes in the envelope, including amino acid substitutions in both gp120 (5 substitutions) and gp41(6 substitutions). Four of the five changes in gp120 are predicted to lie within and around the putative coreceptor binding domain, a region which is believed to be covered by the V1 and V2 loops in the native envelope complex. Analysis of recombinant clones surprisingly revealed that the changes in gp41 were sufficient to overcome the replication deficiency created by deletion of the V1 and V2 loops from gp120. The SIVmac239DeltaV1V2 envelope displayed a significant reduction in its ability to mediate cell-cell fusion, and the infectious titer of SIVmac239DeltaV1V2 was approximately four- to eightfold lower than that of parental SIVmac239. Although SIVmac239 is strongly dependent on both CD4 and a coreceptor for entry, envelope protein lacking the V1 and V2 loops was able to mediate fusion with CD4(-) CCR5(+) cells at 60% the level observed with CD4(+) CCR5(+) cells. Plasma from SIVmac239-infected monkeys was at least 100 to 1,000 times more effective at neutralizing SIVmac239DeltaV1V2 than SIVmac239. These results demonstrate the dispensability of the V1-V2 sequences of SIVmac239 for viral replication, a role for V1 and V2 in shielding the coreceptor binding region of the envelope, and the extreme sensitivity of a SIV lacking these sequences to antibody-mediated neutralization.