The Discovery of Resistant Sources of Spring Barley, Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum, and Unique Greenbug Biotypes.

The genetic sources for host-plant resistance to the greenbug (Schizaphis graminum Rondani) in barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum) are limited in that only two single dominant genes Rsg1 and Rsg2 are available for the complex of greenbug biotypes. We evaluated four new barley lines from the Wild Barley Diversity Collection (WBDC) that previously showed potential for greenbug resistance. Three of those entries, WBDC 53, WBDC 117, WBDC 336, exhibited very dominant sources of resistance to older known biotypes B, C, E, F, H, I, and TX1, which also add to the host-plant differentials used to separate these greenbug biotypes. We also re-evaluated the earlier known set of greenbug biotypes that have been in culture for several years against the known host-plant differentials, and included seven newer greenbug isolates collected from Wyoming to the full complement of small grain differentials. This resulted in the discovery of five new greenbug biotypes, WY10 MC, WY81, WY10 B, WY12 MC, and WY86. Wyoming isolates WY4 A and WY4 B were identical in their phenotypic profile, and should be combined as a single unique greenbug biotype. These barley trials resulted in finding new sources of host-plant resistance, although more research needs to be conducted on what type of resistance was found, and how it can be used. We also document that the Wheatland, Wyoming area serves as a very conducive environment for the development of new greenbug biotypes.

The genome of Diuraphis noxia, a global aphid pest of small grains.

BACKGROUND: The Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov, is one of the most important pests of small grains throughout the temperate regions of the world. This phytotoxic aphid causes severe systemic damage symptoms in wheat, barley, and other small grains as a direct result of the salivary proteins it injects into the plant while feeding. RESULTS: We sequenced and de novo assembled the genome of D. noxia Biotype 2, the strain most virulent to resistance genes in wheat. The assembled genomic scaffolds span 393 MB, equivalent to 93% of its 421 MB genome, and contains 19,097 genes. D. noxia has the most AT-rich insect genome sequenced to date (70.9%), with a bimodal CpG(O/E) distribution and a complete set of methylation related genes. The D. noxia genome displays a widespread, extensive reduction in the number of genes per ortholog group, including defensive, detoxification, chemosensory, and sugar transporter groups in comparison to the Acyrthosiphon pisum genome, including a 65% reduction in chemoreceptor genes. Thirty of 34 known D. noxia salivary genes were found in this assembly. These genes exhibited less homology with those salivary genes commonly expressed in insect saliva, such as glucose dehydrogenase and trehalase, yet greater conservation among genes that are expressed in D. noxia saliva but not detected in the saliva of other insects. Genes involved in insecticide activity and endosymbiont-derived genes were also found, as well as genes involved in virus transmission, although D. noxia is not a viral vector. CONCLUSIONS: This genome is the second sequenced aphid genome, and the first of a phytotoxic insect. D. noxia's reduced gene content of may reflect the influence of phytotoxic feeding in shaping the D. noxia genome, and in turn in broadening its host range. The presence of methylation-related genes, including cytosine methylation, is consistent with other parthenogenetic and polyphenic insects. The D. noxia genome will provide an important contrast to the A. pisum genome and advance functional and comparative genomics of insects and other organisms.

Potential transmission of Pantoea spp. and Serratia marcescens (Enterobacteriales: Enterobacteriaceae) to plants by Lygus hesperus (Hemiptera: Miridae).

Lygus hesperus Knight (Hemiptera: Miridae) is a key agricultural pest in the western United States. In a recent study, proteins from Pantoea ananatis and Serratia marcescens (Enterobacteriales: Enterobacteriaceae) were identified in diet that was stylet probed and fed on by L. hesperus adults. P. ananatis and S. marcescens are ubiquitous bacteria that infect a wide range of crops. The objective of our study was to determine whether L. hesperus transfer P. ananatis and S. marcescens to food substrates during stylet-probing activities. Sucrose (5%) was spread under parafilm and exposed to adult L. hesperus for 24 h. Diet similarly prepared but not exposed to insects was used for controls. MacConkey agar was inoculated with stylet-probed or control diets and incubated at 25 degrees C. After 24 h, bacterial colonies were observed on agar that was inoculated with stylet-probed diet, but were not observed on agar inoculated with control diet. Isolated bacterial colonies were putatively identified as either Pantoea spp. or S. marcescens using the API 20e identification kit. These results indicate that L. hesperus is capable of vectoring P. ananatis and S. marcescens.

Response of Russian wheat aphid resistance in wheat and barley to four Diuraphis (Hemiptera: Aphididae) species.

Three Diuraphis species, Diuraphis frequens (Walker), Diuraphis mexicana (McVicar Baker), and Diuraphis tritici (Gillette), were known to exist in the United States before the 1986 appearance of the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov. The Russian wheat aphid soon became a significant pest of wheat although other endemic Diuraphis species were known to infest wheat. Wheat and barley entries resistant and susceptible to Russian wheat aphid biotype 2 were evaluated against all four Diuraphis species to determine their host interrelationships. Leaf chlorosis, leaf roll, leaf number, plant height, and infestation levels were assessed 21 d after the plants were infested by aphids in a no-choice caged environment. D. mexicana was unable to survive on wheat by 21 d after infestation and effects on the plant damage variables were negligible. D. frequens survived at low levels on resistant and susceptible plant entries and had a low impact on plant damage and growth. Russian wheat aphid biotype 2 and D. tritici were damaged most wheat and barley lines except the Russian wheat aphid biotype 2-resistant wheat lines containing genes from Dn7, STARS 2414-11, and CI2401; and resistant barley containing genes from STARS 9577B and 9301B. Russian wheat aphid biotype 2 and D. tritici reduced the growth of resistant plants by 25-50% and susceptible entries by 65-75%. Reductions at this level are typical under no-choice studies but resistant cultivars do not have these reductions under field conditions. The Russian wheat aphid biotype 2 resistant wheat lines would be effective in managing both wheat pest species.

Effect of Surround WP on behavior and mortality of apple maggot (Diptera: Tephritidae).

Apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a key pest in apple (Malus spp.) production areas located in the northeastern and midwestern United States and the eastern provinces of Canada. The development of Surround WP has offered a new approach for controlling apple maggot and other tephritid species, because this material is considered to be compatible with advanced integrated pest management and organic production systems. We conducted studies aimed at identifying the behavioral and biological effects of this material on apple maggots. Specifically, we examined the effect of Surround WP on the visual ecology of adult flies under field conditions, on tactile responses of flies in semifield trials, and on fly mortality in laboratory-based-bioassays. We demonstrated that an even coating of white particles over a fruit-mimicking sphere surface reduced visual attractiveness. We also found that spotty-coated fruit-mimicking spheres (meant to mimic ripe fruit bearing an uneven coating of Surround WP) were perceived by flies as not having the ideal round silhouette shape stimulus. Surround WP served as a tactile deterrent; the residence time of females introduced on to treated fruit was much shorter compared with untreated fruit. Surround WP also had a toxic effect on both adult apple maggot and Rhagoletis suavis (Loew); flies exposed to and forced to stand on Surround-treated surfaces died in <2 d in all trials. The combined effectiveness of Surround WP is based on a reduction in the attractiveness of fruit-based visual cues, an increase in the likelihood of flies leaving treated surfaces due to tactile deterrence, and a potential for increased mortality due to exposure to Surround WP particles.

Host associations and incidence of Diuraphis spp. in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States, and pictorial key for their identification.

The Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov, is an introduced species first identified in 1986 into the United States. It has since become a major pest of wheat, Triticum aestivum L., and other small grains in the western United States. Three other Diuraphis species, Diuraphis frequens (Walker), Diuraphis mexicana (McVicar Baker), and Diuraphis tritici (Gillette), were already endemic to the United States before the introduction of D. noxia. The objective of this study was to determine the occurrence and host associations of these four Diuraphis spp. in the Rocky Mountain region that borders the western Great Plains to better understand their distribution and ecological interactions. In addition, a key to these species with photographs of live or fresh preparations of specimens is presented to aid in their identification. D. noxia was the most widely distributed species in the study area spanning the Rocky Mountain areas of Wyoming, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado. This species was most common in the cereal-producing areas of the Colorado Plateau ecoregion. D. frequens was found to be the predominant species in the Alpine/Aspen Mountain areas of the South Central Rockies and Colorado Rockies ecoregions. The other Diuraphis species were rarely encountered even though their plant hosts occurred in the ecoregions sampled. D. noxia shared common hosts and was found co-infesting grasses with other Diuraphis species. Therefore, the potential exists for D. noxia to impact the other native Diuraphis species.

Plant responses to seven Russian wheat aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) biotypes found in the United States.

The Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a serious wheat, Triticum aestivum L., and barley, Hordeum vulgare L., pest throughout the small grain-producing areas in the western United States. The virulency and classification of recently described Russian wheat aphid biotypes 1-7 (RWA1-7) were clarified using 24 plant differentials. These seven biotypes had been described previously using various methods and test environments; therefore, the purpose of this study was to test them all under uniform environmental conditions. RWA1 was the least virulent of the biotypes tested, with susceptible ratings observed in five plant differentials and intermediate ratings observed in four plant differentials. RWA4, RWA5, RWA6, and RWA7 had intermediate virulence. RWA4, RWA5, and RWA7 share similar responses, with susceptible responses in six plant differentials and intermediate responses in five plant differentials. Small differences within a few plant differentials separate RWA4, RWA5, and RWA7. RWA6 has susceptible responses with only four plant differentials, but 10 plant differentials had intermediate responses. RWA3 was highly virulent, with susceptible responses in 10 plant differentials and intermediate responses in five plant differentials. RWA2 was the most virulent strain tested with susceptible responses to 12 plant differentials and intermediate responses to five plant differentials. This study has demonstrated that RWA1-7 have different combinations of virulence to the plant differentials tested, thereby confirming previous Russian wheat aphid biotype designations.

Distribution of a New Invasive Species, Sipha maydis (Heteroptera: Aphididae), on Cereals and Wild Grasses in the Southern Plains and Rocky Mountain States.

Sipha maydis Passerini (Heteroptera: Aphididae) is a cereal pest with an extensive geographical range that includes countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. Reports of S. maydis in the United States have been infrequent since it was first detected in California, 2007. Two studies, focused (NW CO) and multistate (OK, TX, NM, CO, UT, WY), were conducted to determine the distribution and host range of S. maydis in the Rocky Mountain and Southern Plains states over a 3-yr period, 2015-2017. In 2015, focused sampling in NW Colorado found S. maydis at 59% of the 37 sites, primarily on wheat. Sipha maydis did not survive extreme winter temperatures from late December 2015 to early January 2016 that ranged from -9.0 to -20.9°C over a 9-d period, which resulted in no aphids detected in 2016. In the multistate study, S. maydis occurred in 14.6% of 96 sites sampled in 2015, 8% of 123 sites in 2016, and 9% of 85 sites in 2017 at wide range of altitudes from 1,359 to 2,645 m. Sipha maydis occurred mainly in NW and SW Colorado and NE New Mexico along with a few sites in NE Colorado, SE Utah, and SE Wyoming. This aphid mainly infested wheat followed by a variety of eight wild grass species. No parasites, predators, sexual morphs, or significant plant damage occurred at the sites. Sipha maydis utilized 14 hosts in the United States including 8 new host records, which expands its host range to 52 plant species worldwide. Sipha maydis may be of concern to wheat, barley, and sorghum production in the United States if its populations continue to increase.

Biotypic diversity in Colorado Russian wheat aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) populations.

The biotypic diversity of the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), was assessed in five isolates collected in Colorado. Three isolates, RWA 1, RWA 2, and an isolate from Montezuma County, CO, designated RWA 6, were originally collected from cultivated wheat, Triticum aestivum L., and obtained from established colonies at Colorado State University. The fourth isolate, designated RWA 7, was collected from Canada wildrye, Elymus canadensis L., in Baca County, CO. The fifth isolate, designated RWA 8, was collected from crested wheatgrass, Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn., in Montezuma County, CO. The four isolates were characterized in a standard seedling assay, by using 24 plant differentials, 22 wheat lines and two barley, Hordeum vulgare L., lines. RWA 1 was the least virulent of the isolates, killing only the four susceptible entries. RWA 8 also killed only the four susceptible entries, but it expressed intermediate virulence on seven wheat lines. RWA 6, killing nine entries, and RWA 7, killing 11 entries, both expressed an intermediate level of virulence overall, but differed in their level of virulence to 'CO03797' (Dn1), 'Yumar' (Dn4), and 'CO960293-2'. RWA 2 was the most virulent isolate, killing 14 entries, including Dn4- and Dny-containing wheat. Four wheat lines, '94M370' (Dn7), 'STARS 02RWA2414-11', CO03797, and 'CI2401', were resistant to the five isolates. The results of this screening confirm the presence of five unique Russian wheat aphid biotypes in Colorado.

Distribution and diversity of russian wheat aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) biotypes in North America.

Wheat, Triticum aestivum L., with Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) resistance based on the Dn4 gene has been important in managing Russian wheat aphid since 1994. Recently, five biotypes (RWA1-RWA5) of this aphid have been described based on their ability to differentially damage RWA resistance genes in wheat. RWA2, RWA4, and RWA5 are of great concern because they can kill wheat with Dn4 resistance. In 2005, 365 Russian wheat aphid clone colonies were made from collections taken from 98 fields of wheat or barley, Hordeum vulgare L., in Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming to determine their biotypic status. The biotype of each clone was determined through its ability to differentially damage two resistant and two susceptible wheat entries in two phases of screening. The first phase determined the damage responses of Russian wheat aphid wheat entries with resistance genes Dn4, Dn7, and susceptible 'Custer' to infestations by each clone to identify RWA1 to RWA4. The second phase used the responses of Custer and 'Yuma' wheat to identify RWA1 and RWA5. Only two biotypes, RWA1 and RWA2, were identified in this study. The biotype composition across all collection sites was 27.2% RWA1 and 72.8% RWA2. RWA biotype frequency by state indicated that RWA2 was the predominant biotype and composed 73-95% of the biotype complex in Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and Wyoming. Our study indicated that RWA2 is widely distributed and that it has rapidly dominated the biotype complex in wheat and barley within its primary range from Texas to Wyoming. Wheat with the Dn4 resistance gene will have little value in managing RWA in the United States, based on the predominance of RWA2.

More Virulent Offspring Result From Hybridization of Invasive Aphid Species, Diuraphis noxia (Hemiptera: Aphididae), With Diuraphis tritici Endemic to the United States.

The Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov), invaded the United States in 1986 and soon became a significant pest of wheat. Diuraphis tritici (Gillette) is native to the United States and was firmly established on wild grasses before the arrival of Russian wheat aphid. Both species are known to coinfest the same grass hosts, during the time they enter the sexual phase in the fall, mate, and produce overwintering eggs. Therefore, we induced males and females under greenhouse conditions in the fall and conducted studies in the laboratory to determine if these two species interbred and produced viable offspring. Fitness and virulence to Russian wheat aphid-resistant wheat and barley entries were also compared among the hybrid progeny and both parents. Diuraphis tritici produced males and females in October. Diuraphis noxia biotype RWA8 produced enough oviparae to conduct crossing experiments. No males occurred in the D. noxia colony making it only possible to crossbreed D. tritici males with RWA8 oviparae and to inbreed D. tritici. No difference in egg production per female (2.0-2.5) or percent egg hatch (23.1-27.0%) was found between crosses. However, progeny survival after hatch for D. tritici inbreds (33.3%) was much higher than the D. tritici × D. noxia crosses (0.25%). Only one hybrid survived to reproductive adult. Intrinsic rate of increase (rm) indicated the hybrid (0.18) was less fit than both parents (0.24-0.29). The hybrid line produced damage ratings to the 16 cereal entries similar to D. tritici but was more virulent to wheat and barley entries than both parents.

Survival and Feeding Rates of Four Aphid Species (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on Various Sucrose Concentrations in Diets.

Different concentrations of sucrose were used to investigate how survival and feeding was affected in four species of aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Seven sucrose concentrations were evaluated in feeding chambers fitted with parafilm membranes and infested with nymphs of Aphis glycines Matsumura, Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov, Myzus persicae Sulzer, or Schizaphis graminum Rondani at 25 °C and a photoperiod of 14:10 (L:D) h. Survival on each diet was recorded 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 d. Diet volumes (µl) consumed and amounts of honeydew produced were then determined. Aphid survival differed significantly by concentration, time (d), and aphid species. Aphis glycines survival was highest (83.8%) on 30% sucrose although percent survival in the 70's occurred on concentrations ranging from 15-25%. Diuraphis noxia survival was highest on the 15 and 20% sucrose concentrations. Survival for Myzus persicae was optimal on 20% sucrose (92%) but did not differ that much (5%) on concentrations of 15-35%. Schizaphis graminum survival (93.0-93.6%) was highest on sucrose concentrations ranging from 20-30% sucrose. Myzus persicae and S. graminum, which feed on a wide-range of host plants, were overall more adapted to feeding on a wider range of sucrose concentrations than the more host-restricted aphid species, A. glycines. Diet consumption by A. glycines did not vary on the sucrose concentrations, but D. noxia and M. persicae exhibited increased consumption on diets that provided optimal survival. Results will aid in the design of short-term studies using sucrose-only diets to evaluate effects of bioactive materials on aphid survival for up to 11 d.

Biotypic variation among north American Russian wheat aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) populations.

The Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) (Homoptera: Aphididae), has been a major economic pest of small grains in the western United States since its introduction in 1986. Recently, a new Russian wheat aphid biotype was discovered in southeastern Colorado that damaged previously resistant wheat, Triticum aestivum L. Biotype development jeopardizes the durability of plant resistance, which has been a cornerstone for Russian wheat aphid management. Our objective was to assess the relative amount of biotypic diversity among Russian wheat aphid populations collected from cultivated wheat and barley, Hordeum vulgare L. We conducted field surveys from May through June 2002 and August 2003 from seven counties within Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming. Based upon a foliar chlorosis damage rating, three new Russian wheat aphid biotypes were identified, one of which was virulent to all characterized sources of Russian wheat aphid resistance. The future success of Russian wheat aphid resistance breeding programs will depend upon the continual monitoring of extant biotypic diversity and determination of the ecological and genetic factors underlying the development of Russian wheat aphid biotypes.

Toxicity of sucrose octanoate to egg, nymphal, and adult Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) using a novel plant-based bioassay.

The sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), B biotype, presents a unique problem for vegetable growers by serving as a vector of plant viruses and by inducing physiological disorders of leaves and fruit. An action threshold of a single whitefly is necessary because of the threat of disease in many areas and growers rely heavily on a single class of insecticides (neonicotinoids) for whitefly control. Additional control methods are needed to manage this pest in commercial vegetables. Extracts of wild tobacco contain natural sugar esters that have previously been shown effective in controlling many soft-bodied insects. We developed a novel tomato leaf bioassay system to assess a synthetic sugar ester derivative, sucrose octanoate, for insecticidal activity against the eggs, nymphs, and adults of B. tabaci. The LC50 values for sucrose octanoate against adults, second instars, and fourth instars of the whitefly were 880, 686, and 1,571 ppm, respectively. The LC50 against whitefly eggs was higher (11,446 ppm) but indicated that some egg mortality occurred at the recommended application rate of 0.8-1.2% (3,200-4,800 ppm [Al]). Toxicity of sugar esters to whitefly eggs has not been reported previously. The tomato leaf bioassay produced reliable and repeatable results for whitefly toxicity studies and predicted that effective nymph and adult whitefly control can be achieved with sucrose octanoate at application rates < or = 1% (4,000 ppm [AI]). Field efficacy studies are warranted to determine whether this biorational pesticide has application in commercial tomato production.

Action of particle films on the biology and behavior of pear psylla (Homoptera: Psyllidae).

Particle films with different properties have been developed for arthropod pest control. Two basic film types are hydrophobic and hydrophilic films. The hydrophilic film formulations differ in the amount and kind of spreader-sticker that is incorporated into the kaolin particles. The effects of particle film type (hydrophobic versus hydrophilic) and formulation (Surround versus Surround WP) on the biology and behavior of pear psylla, Cacopsylla pyricola (Foerster), were investigated on pear in a series of laboratory studies. Scanning electron microscopy determined that the number of particles that attached to the front tibia of adult psylla differed by particle formulation but the particle sizes were fairly uniform and ranged from 3.6 to 4.5 microm in diameter. Adults had difficulty grasping particle film-treated leaves, and this effect was influenced by film type and leaf surface. Choice and no-choice tests indicated that adult settling and oviposition were very low, regardless of film type or formulation. Under no-choice conditions, adult mortality was low, in part, because the adults were able to feed through all 3% particle films, but at reduced rates. However, the mortality of adults sprayed with 3% particle film solutions ranged from 22.2 to 62.5% within 72 h after treatment, and mortalities differed most between the hydrophilic formulations. Nymphs born on particle film-treated foliage incurred high mortalities ranging from 58.9 to 82.0% by the time they reached the fifth instar and were affected most by particle film type. Nymphal development was not affected by particle film type or formulation. Egg fertility and nymphal hatch also were unaffected by particle films. These studies determined that there are a number of biological effects particle films have on pear psylla beyond the deterrence of adult settling and oviposition.

Effect of sucrose octanoate on survival of nymphal and adult Diaphorina citri (Homoptera: Psyllidae).

Asian citrus psylla, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Homoptera: Psyllidae) was detected for the first time in the United States near Delray Beach, FL, on 2 June 1998 and is continuing to spread and multiply throughout southern Florida. This psyllid is the vector of Liberobacter asiaticum, a phloem-limited bacterium that causes citrus greening disease. This pathogen has not been found in the Western Hemisphere to date. Furthermore, high infestation levels of D. citri can impact citrus plant health, fruit quality, or yield. Replicated laboratory and spray booth bioassays were conducted to determine the insecticidal activity of a synthetic analog of natural sugar esters found in leaf trichomes of wild tobacco, Nicotiatna gossei Domin, to nymphal and adult D. citri. Field trials were initiated in Fort Pierce, FL, in 2000 to determine activity of the sugar ester formulation (sucrose octanoate) on D. citri and other citrus pests, including immature Asian citrus leafminer, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton and mites. Sucrose octanoate rates tested ranged from 400 to 8000 ppm (0.1-2% formulated product). Our data suggest that both nymphal and adult D. citri as well as the mite complex tested would be equally controlled to levels of >90% at the higher concentrations of sucrose octanoate and that good coverage is key to efficacy.

Structure-function relationships affecting the insecticidal and miticidal activity of sugar esters.

Synthetic sugar esters are a relatively new class of insecticidal compounds that are produced by reacting sugars with fatty acids. The objective of this research was to determine how systematic alterations in sugar or fatty acid components of sugar ester compounds influenced their insecticidal properties. Sucrose octanoate, sorbitol octanoate, sorbitol decanoate, sorbitol caproate, xylitol octanoate, xylitol decanoate and xylitol dodecanoate were synthesized and evaluated against a range of arthropod pests. Dosage-mortality studies were conducted on pear psylla (Cacopsylla pyricola Foerster) on pear, tobacco aphid (Myzus nicotianae) Blackman and tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta [Johannson]) on tobacco, and twospotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) on apple in laboratory bioassays. These sugar esters were compared with insecticidal soap (M-Pede, Dow AgroSciences L.L.C., San Diego, CA), to determine how toxicologically similar these materials were against the arthropod pests. Substitutions in either the sugar or fatty acid component led to significant changes in the physical properties and insecticidal activity of these compounds. The sugar esters varied in their solubility in water and in emulsion stability, yet, droplet spread upon pear leaves occurred at low concentrations of 80-160 ppm and was strongly correlated with psylla mortalities (R2 = 0.73). Sequentially altering the sugar or fatty acid components from lower to higher numbers of carbon chains, or whether the sugar was a monosaccharide or disaccharide did not follow a predictable relationship to insecticidal activity. Intuitively, changing the hydrophile from sorbitol (C6) to xylitol (C5) would require a decrease in lipophile chain length to maintain hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) relationships, yet an increase in lipophile chain length was unexpectedly needed for increasing insecticidal activity. Thus, the HLB of these materials did not correlate with pear psylla mortalities. Initial insect bioassays and dosage-mortality data found significant differences among sugar ester compounds' toxicity to the range of arthropod species. Sucrose octanoate high in monoester content had the highest activity against the range of arthropod pests at low concentrations of 1200-2400 ppm. No single chemical structure for the xylitol or sorbitol esters were optimally effective against the range of arthropods we tested and sorbitol octanoate and xylitol decanoate had the highest insecticidal activity of this group. All of the sugar ester materials produced high T. urticae mortalities on apple at very low concentrations of 400 ppm. Overall, most of the sugar esters that were examined had superior insecticidal activity compared with insecticidal soap. Sugar ester chemistry offers a unique opportunity to design an insecticide or miticide specific to certain arthropod pests which would be valuable in crop integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Sucrose esters are currently used as additives in the food industry which makes them especially attractive as safe and effective insecticides.

Sucrose octanoate toxicity to brown citrus aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) and the parasitoid Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae).

We report the toxicological effects of a new biorational, synthetic sucrose octanoate (AVA Chemical Ventures L.L.C., Portsmouth, NH), on brown citrus aphid, Toxoptera citricida (Kirkaldy), nymphs and adults and to its native parasitoid Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson). Sucrose octanoate topically applied was equally toxic to brown citrus aphid adults and nymphs with LC50 and LC90 values ranging from 356 to 514 and 1029 to 1420 ppm, respectively. Mortalities of both stages did not differ significantly over time during the 3-24-h sampling period. Dry residues of sucrose octanoate exhibited similar levels of toxicity to both nymphs and adults. Mortality ranged from 60 to 70% at 6,000 ppm 4 h after exposure. L. testaceipes was not harmed by treatments as high as 4,000 ppm of sucrose octanoate as long as the parasitoid had mummified before treatment. Based on these results, sucrose octanoate would be a useful biorational in citrus integrated pest management programs.

Pear transformed with a lytic peptide gene for disease control affects nontarget organism, pear psylla (Homoptera: Psyllidae).

The biology and behavior of pear psylla, Cacopsylla pyricola Foerster, on a transgenic clone of 'Bartlett' pear, Pyrus communis L., containing a synthetic antimicrobial gene, D5C1, was compared with that of a nontransgenic parental clone to determine whether there were any nontarget effects. The gene construct also contained the marker gene nptII (aminoglycoside 3'-phosphotransferase II) that encodes for antibiotic resistance to identify transformed plants. The purpose of the original transformation was to enhance pear resistance to the bacterial disease fireblight caused by Erwinia amylovora (Burr.) Winslow et al. The biology and behavior of pear psylla on a transgenic clone were compared with a nontransgenic parental pear clone in short- (< or = 7-d) and long-term (32-d) studies. Short-term studies indicated pear psylla adults preferred to settle and oviposit, and nymphs fed more and developed slightly faster, on transgenic pear compared with nontransgenic pear. In contrast, a long-term study on psylla colony development showed considerably fewer eggs, nymphs, and adults were produced on transgenic pear. Although adults reared on transgenic pear did not have weight affected, females produced fewer eggs and nymphal hatch was significantly reduced on the transgenic pear clone. Our results suggest that pear psylla biology and behavior are initially enhanced on this transgenic pear clone. However, chronic exposure of psylla populations to transformed pear plants that express the nptII marker and lytic peptide genes had detrimental effects on pear psylla reproductive biology. Field studies would be required to determine the specific effects of each gene on pear psylla biology and behavior and whether these effects would be expressed under natural conditions. The four-fold reduction in psylla population levels that resulted on this disease resistant transgenic pear line would be an added benefit to a pear integrated pest management (IPM) program. Overall, this study demonstrates that genetically altering plants to control one particular organism can have unintentional yet beneficial effects against other nontarget pest organisms in agricultural crops.

Variation in the salivary proteomes of differentially virulent greenbug (Schizaphis graminum Rondani) biotypes.

Greenbug (Schizaphis graminum Rondani) biotypes are classified by their differential virulence to wheat, barley, and sorghum varieties possessing greenbug resistance genes. Virulent greenbug biotypes exert phytotoxic effects upon their hosts during feeding, directly inducing physiological and metabolic alterations and accompanying foliar damage. Comparative analyses of the salivary proteomes of four differentially virulent greenbug biotypes C, E, G, and H showed significant proteomic divergence between biotypes. Thirty-two proteins were identified by LC-MS/MS; the most prevalent of which were three glucose dehydrogenase paralogs (GDH), lipophorin, complementary sex determiner, three proteins of unknown function, carbonic anhydrase, fibroblast growth factor receptor, and abnormal oocyte (ABO). Seven nucleotide-binding proteins were identified, including ABO which is involved in mRNA splicing. Quantitative variation among greenbug biotypes was detected in six proteins; two GDH paralogs, carbonic anhydrase, ABO, and two proteins of unknown function. Our findings reveal that the greenbug salivary proteome differs according to biotype and diverges substantially from those reported for other aphids. The proteomic profiles of greenbug biotypes suggest that interactions between aphid salivary proteins and the plant host result in suppression of plant defenses and cellular transport, and may manipulate transcriptional regulation in the plant host, ultimately allowing the aphid to maintain phloem ingestion. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Greenbug (Schizaphis graminum Rondani, GB) is a major phytotoxic aphid pest of wheat, sorghum, and barley. Unlike non-phytotoxic aphids, GB directly damages its host, causing uniformly characteristic symptoms leading to host death. As saliva is the primary interface between the aphid and its plant host, saliva is also the primary aphid biotypic determinant, and differences in biotypic virulence are the result of biotypic variations in salivary content. This study analyzed the exuded saliva of four distinct Greenbug biotypes with a range of virulence to crop lines containing greenbug resistance traits in order to identify differences between salivary proteins of the examined biotypes. Our analyses confirmed that the salivary proteomes of the examined greenbug biotypes differ widely, identified 32 proteins of the greenbug salivary proteome, and found significant proteomic variation between six identified salivary proteins. The proteomic variation identified herein is likely the basis of biotypic virulence, and the proteins identified can serve as the basis for functional studies into both greenbug-induced phytotoxic damage and into the molecular basis of virulence in specific GB biotypes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: SI: Proteomics of non-model organisms.