The Relationship Between Cell-Free DNA and Resistance Training Volume Load.

ABSTRACT: Lang, HM, Duffourc, MM, Bazyler, CD, Ramsey, MW, and Gentles, JA. The relationship between cell-free DNA and resistance training volume load. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1008-1012, 2024-The primary purpose of this study was to assess the sensitivity of cell-free DNA (cf-DNA) to different resistance training volume loads. The secondary purpose was to examine the relationship between change in cf-DNA and relative strength. Researchers hypothesized that (a) cf-DNA concentrations would increase with increasing volume load and (b) increases in relative strength would result in predicted decreases to %Δ of cf-DNA. Thirty subjects were recruited for this study, 15 men and 15 women. Blood was collected through venous draws into 4-ml vacutainers at 3 time points: immediately before (T1), after 3 sets (T2), and after 6 sets (T3) of the back squat exercise. A critical alpha of 0.05 was set for inferential statistics. A repeated-measures ANOVA showed that cf-DNA increased significantly from T1 (407.72 ± 320.83) to T2 (1,244.6 ± 875.83) ( p < 0.01) and T1 (407.72 ± 320.83) to T3 (1,331.15 ± 1,141.66) ( p < 0.01), whereas no difference was found from T2 to T3 ( p = 1.00). The linear regression model used to examine the predictive capabilities relative strength had on cf-DNA %Δ from T1 to T3 was found to be significant ( p = 0.04; R2 = 0.15). The results of this study demonstrate the short response of cf-DNA in relation to variations in resistance training volume load. Results also demonstrated the positive relationship between relative strength and cf-DNA %Δ. The current study builds on the body of research that cf-DNA provides insight regarding the level of immune response after exercise training.

Estimation and usefulness of measurement uncertainty from sampling at different spatial scales: microns to kilometres.

Uncertainty of measurement values (MU) is crucial to their reliable geochemical interpretation. MU can be estimated using the Duplicate Method, which requires the taking of a small proportion of duplicated samples, and can be applied at any spatial scale. The distance between the duplicated samples is selected to reflect the effect of analyte heterogeneity on the measurement result (i.e. estimated concentration) within each sampling target, at the particular scale of investigation. Three published case studies, at different spatial scales, are used to explain how the Duplicate Method can be applied to estimate MU. They also illustrate how MU can be used to improve geochemical interpretation and validate measurement procedures (that include sampling) by judging their fitness for purpose. At the kilometre scale, measurements from the GEMAS survey of agricultural soils across Europe are used to estimate their MU for the first time. The MU for 53 elements range from an uncertainty factor of 1.01 to over 10. The MU contributes more that 20% to the total variance for 8 of the 53 elements, showing that the measurement procedure was not fit for purpose in those cases. At the micron scale, measurements of oxygen isotopes in candidate quartz reference materials had MU that was dominated by its sampling component, caused by sometimes unacceptable heterogeneity. A third case study of Pb in soils at 12 UK sites showed that the Duplicate Method can also be used to quantify the heterogeneity (as factor 1.03 to 2.4), and that it can indicate different possible sources of an element.

Non-isothermal cold crystallization of liquid crystalline porphyrins.

A series of liquid crystalline porphyrins was synthesized, purified, and characterized. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and hot-stage polarized optical microscopy (HS-POM) revealed that the porphyrins in the series with shorter alkyl arm lengths exhibit kinetic cold crystallization, wherein the molecules spontaneously organize into large, disc-like structures that remain stable upon cooling. Using DSC, the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters related to these materials were determined. Analysis of non-isothermal crystallization revealed the presence of multiple nucleation and growth processes related to cold crystallization.

Charge and adsorption height dependence of the self-metalation of porphyrins on ultrathin MgO(001) films.

We have experimentally determined the adsorption structure, charge state, and metalation state of porphin, the fundamental building block of porphyrins, on ultrathin Ag(001)-supported MgO(001) films by scanning tunneling microscopy and photoemission spectroscopy, supported by calculations based on density functional theory. By tuning the substrate work function to values below and above the critical work function for charging, we succeeded in the preparation of 2H-P monolayers which contain negatively charged and uncharged molecules. It is shown that the porphin molecules self-metalate at room temperature, forming the corresponding Mg-porphin, irrespective of their charge state. This is in contrast to self-metalation of tetraphenyl porphyrin (TPP), which occurs on planar MgO(001) only if the molecules are negatively charged. The different reactivity is explained by the reduced molecule-substrate distance of the planar porphin molecule compared to the bulkier TPP. The results of this study shed light on the mechanism of porphyrin self-metalation on oxides and highlight the role of the adsorption geometry on the chemical reactivity.

Association Between Nonoptimal Blood Pressure and Cochlear Function.

OBJECTIVES: The association between hearing loss and risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including high blood pressure (BP), has been evaluated in numerous studies. However, data from population- and laboratory-based studies remain inconclusive. Furthermore, most prior work has focused on the effects of BP level on behavioral hearing sensitivity. In this study, we investigated cochlear integrity using distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) in persons with subtle elevation in BP levels (nonoptimal BP) hypothesizing that nonoptimal BP would be associated with poorer cochlear function. DESIGN: Sixty individuals [55% male, mean age = 31.82 (SD = 11.17) years] took part in the study. The authors measured pure-tone audiometric thresholds from 0.25 to 16 kHz and computed four pure-tone averages (PTAs) for the following frequency combinations (in kHz): PTA0.25, 0.5, 0.75, PTA1, 1.5, 2, 3, PTA4, 6, 8, and PTA10, 12.5, 16. DPOAEs at the frequency 2f1-f2 were recorded for L1/L2 = 65/55 dB SPL using an f2/f1 ratio of 1.22. BP was measured, and subjects were categorized as having either optimal BP (systolic/diastolic <120 and <80 mm Hg) or nonoptimal BP (systolic ≥120 or diastolic ≥80 mm Hg or use of antihypertensives). Between-group differences in behavioral thresholds and DPOAE levels were evaluated using 95% confidence intervals. Pearson product-moment correlations were run to assess the relationships between: (1) thresholds (all four PTAs) and BP level and (2) DPOAE [at low (f2 ≤ 2 kHz), mid (f2 > 2 kHz and ≤10 kHz), and high (f2 > 10 kHz) frequency bins] and BP level. Linear mixed-effects models were constructed to account for the effects of BP status, stimulus frequency, age and sex on thresholds, and DPOAE amplitudes. RESULTS: Significant positive correlations between diastolic BP and all four PTAs and systolic BP and PTA0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and PTA4, 6, 8 were observed. There was not a significant effect of BP status on hearing thresholds from 0.5 to 16 kHz after adjustment for age, sex, and frequency. Correlations between diastolic and systolic BP and DPOAE levels were statistically significant at the high frequencies and for the relationship between diastolic BP and DPOAE level at the mid frequencies. Averaged across frequency, the nonoptimal BP group had DPOAE levels 1.50 dB lower (poorer) than the optimal BP group and differences were statistically significant (p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Initial findings suggest significant correlations between diastolic BP and behavioral thresholds and diastolic BP and mid-frequency DPOAE levels. However, adjusted models indicate other factors are more important drivers of impaired auditory function. Contrary to our hypothesis, we found that subtle BP elevation was not associated with poorer hearing sensitivity or cochlear dysfunction. We consider explanations for the null results. Greater elevation in BP (i.e., hypertension itself) may be associated with more pronounced effects on cochlear function, warranting further investigation. This study suggests that OAEs may be a viable tool to characterize the relationship between cardiometabolic risk factors (and in particular, stage 2 hypertension) and hearing health.

Development of Masked Speech Detection Thresholds in 2- to 15-year-old Children: Speech-Shaped Noise and Two-Talker Speech Maskers.

OBJECTIVES: On the basis of the data from school-aged children, there is consistent evidence that there is a prolonged course of auditory development for perceiving speech embedded in competing background sounds. Furthermore, age-related differences are prolonged and pronounced for a two-talker speech masker compared to a speech-shaped noise masker. However, little is known about the course of development during the toddler and preschool years because it is difficult to collect reliable behavioral data from this age range. The goal of this study was to extend our lower age limit to include toddlers and preschoolers to characterize the developmental trajectory for masked speech detection thresholds across childhood. DESIGN: Participants were 2- to 15-year-old children (n = 67) and adults (n = 17), all with normal hearing. Thresholds (71%) were measured for detecting a two-syllable word embedded in one of two maskers: speech-shaped noise or two-talker speech. The masker was presented at 55 dB SPL throughout testing. Stimuli were presented to the left ear via a lightweight headphone. Data were collected using an observer-based testing method in which the participant's behavior was judged by an experimenter using a two-interval, two-alternative testing paradigm. The participant's response to the stimulus was shaped by training him/her to perform a conditioned play-based response to the sound. For children, receptive vocabulary and working memory were measured. Data were fitted with a linear regression model to establish the course of development for each masker condition. Appropriateness of the test method was also evaluated by determining if there were age-related differences in training data, inter-rater reliability, or slope or upper asymptote estimates from pooled psychometric functions across different age groups. RESULTS: Child and adult speech detection thresholds were poorer in the two-talker masker than in the speech-shaped noise masker, but different developmental trajectories were seen for the two masker conditions. For the speech-shaped noise masker, threshold improved by about 5 dB across the age span tested, with adult-like performance being reached around 10 years of age. For the two-talker masker condition, thresholds improved by about 7 dB between 2.5 and 15 years. However, the linear fit for this condition failed to achieve adult-like performance because of limited data from teenagers. No significant age-related differences were seen in training data, probe hit rate, or inter-rater reliability. Furthermore, slope and upper asymptote estimates from pooled psychometric functions were similar across different child age groups. CONCLUSIONS: Different developmental patterns were seen across the two maskers, with more pronounced child-adult differences and prolonged immaturity during childhood for the two-talker masker relative to the speech-shaped noise masker. Our data do not support the idea that there is rapid improvement of masked speech detection thresholds between 2.5 and 5 years of age. This study also highlights that our observer-based method can be used to collect reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers-a time period where we know little about auditory development.

Variations in Substance Use and Disorders Among Sexual Minorities by Race/Ethnicity.

PURPOSE: Little is known about racial/ethnic minority substance use and disorder-related disparities among sexual minorities as compared to their heterosexual counterparts. This study aimed to understand the associations between sexual minority status and substance use and disorders among U.S. adults stratified by race/ethnicity. Methods: We analyzed data from a sample of U.S. adults (n = 35,981) surveyed during the 2012-2013 National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. Respondents were categorized into four sexual minority statuses: heterosexual, gay/lesbian, bisexual, and conflicting. Respondents' substance (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) use and disorders were also assessed using standard measures. Weighted multivariable logistic regressions were used to examine the relationships between sexual minority status and substance use and disorders, stratified by race/ethnicity, adjusting for socio-demographic characteristics. Results: Sexual minority adults experienced a higher prevalence of substance use and disorders than heterosexuals. For example, bisexuals were more likely than heterosexuals to use marijuana (AOR = 3.45, 95% CI = 2.64-4.50) and have tobacco use disorders (AOR = 2.58, 95% CI = 2.02-3.28). These associations were stronger among racial/ethnic minorities. For instance, bisexual non-Hispanic Blacks were more than twice as likely (AOR = 3.17, 95% CI = 2.16-4.65) to be current tobacco users than their heterosexual counterparts; while this association was weaker for bisexual non-Hispanic Whites (AOR = 1.99, 95% CI = 1.47-2.71). Conclusion: Sexual minority adults, especially those who are also racial/ethnic minorities, experience a significantly higher burden of substance use and disorders than heterosexuals. Efforts to screen and treat substance use and disorders among this particular population are critically needed to improve their health outcomes and reduce health disparities.

Exploring the Utility of Performing a Down Set as a Postactivation Potentiation Strategy.

ABSTRACT: Wong, H, Gentles, J, Bazyler, C, and Ramsey, M. Exploring the utility of performing a down set as a postactivation potentiation strategy. J Strength Cond Res 35(5): 1217-1222, 2021-The purpose of this study was to determine if successive heavy sets of back squats can augment the concentric velocity of a lighter down set performed by strength-trained men. Twelve trained men with experience in the back squat volunteered to perform a 5 repetition maximum (5RM) along with 2 separate squat sessions consisting of 3 sets of 5 repetitions with 85% of their 5RM. One condition involved performing a "down set" (DS) after the 3 working sets at 85% of 5RM equivalent to 60% of the working-set load that was also performed during the warm-up. A "No down set" condition involved performing an additional warm-up set before the working sets with 60% of the working-set load instead of the down set to determine if velocity was augmented because of postactivation potentiation in the DS condition. In both conditions, 3 minutes of rest was applied between all sets. A paired sample t-test was used to compare the mean concentric velocities (MCVs) of the working sets of both conditions, and a repeated measures analysis of variance was used to assess differences in MCVs between sets performed at 60% of the working-set load. Cohen's d effect sizes were reported for all comparisons, and the critical alpha was set at p ≤ 0.05. No significant differences were observed in the working-set MCVs in both conditions (p = 0.412, d = 0.246) or between MCVs in the down set and equivalent warm-up set load in the DS condition (p = 0.270, d = 0.002).Although performing a down set may still be efficacious for developing power across a broad spectrum of loads, the results of this study suggest successive heavy sets of back squats do not acutely augment down set concentric velocity in strength-trained men.

Charge-Promoted Self-Metalation of Porphyrins on an Oxide Surface.

Metalation and self-metalation reactions of porphyrins on oxide surfaces have recently gained interest. The mechanism of porphyrin self-metalation on oxides is, however, far from being understood. Herein, we show by a combination of results obtained with scanning tunneling microscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, and DFT computations, that the self-metalation of 2H-tetraphenylporphyrin on the surface of ultrathin MgO(001) films is promoted by charge transfer. By tuning the work function of the MgO(001)/Ag(001) substrate, we are able to control the charge and the metalation state of the porphyrin molecules on the surface.

Association between marital status and cigarette smoking: Variation by race and ethnicity.

It is unclear whether health risk behaviors differ by nuanced marital statuses and race/ethnicity. We examined the association between detailed marital status and current cigarette smoking among U.S. adults by race/ethnicity. Data were from four Health Information National Trends (HINTS) study cycles collected in 2011-2017 with a nationally representative sample of adults 30 years and older (n = 11,889). Current cigarette smoking prevalence was compared across detailed marital statuses (married, cohabiting, divorced, widowed, separated, single/never married) by race/ethnicity. Adults who had the highest prevalence of cigarette smoking were non-Hispanic Black cohabitors (36.2%), separated non-Hispanic White adults (35.3%), and single/never married Hispanic adults (28.2%). It is noteworthy that widowed adults had lower cigarette smoking prevalence than those who were divorced or separated across races/ethnicities. Taken together, this study demonstrates how cigarette smoking prevalence varies by intersection of marital status and race/ethnicity. Ensuring the equitable implementation of a comprehensive best-practice tobacco prevention and control program that includes prevention and treatment is important to reduce the burden of cigarette smoking in these populations.

Long-Term Changes in Jump Performance and Maximum Strength in a Cohort of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Women's Volleyball Athletes.

Kavanaugh, AA, Mizuguchi, S, Sands, WA, Ramsey, MW, and Stone, MH. Long-term changes in jump performance and maximum strength in a cohort of NCAA division I women's volleyball Athletes. J Strength Cond Res 32(1): 66-75, 2018-The purpose of this investigation was to quantify the magnitude of change in maximal strength and jumping abilities over approximately 1, 2, and 3 years of supervised sport and resistance training in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) division I women's volleyball athletes. This was an exploratory study on a cohort of women's volleyball athletes (n = 29) split into 3 groups based on the length of the time spent in a supervised resistance training program: group 1 (n = 11): 0.7 ± 0.3 years, group 2 (n = 9): 1.6 ± 0.2 years, and group 3 (n = 9): 2.4 ± 0.6 years. Monitoring tests consisted of standing height (cm), body mass (kg), body fat (%), static jump height (SJH) and countermovement JH (CMJH) with 0-, 11-, and 20-kg loads (cm), and midthigh clean pull isometric peak force (IPF) and allometrically scaled IPF (IPFa) (N·kg). Increasing trends were observed for all variables from groups 1 to 2 to 3. Statistically greater improvements (p ≤ 0.05) with moderate to large effect sizes were found between groups 1 and 3 for SJH 0 (19.7%, d = 1.35), SJH 11 (23.8%, d = 1.23), SJH 20 (30.6%, d = 1.20), CMJH 11 (22.6%, d = 1.18), IPF (44.4%, d = 1.22), and IPFa (41.2%, d = 1.32). A combination of traditional resistance training exercises and weightlifting variations at various loads, in addition to volleyball practice, seem to be effective at increasing maximal strength by 44% and vertical JH by 20-30% in NCAA division I women's volleyball athletes after about 2.5 years of training. Furthermore, these characteristics can be improved in the absence of additional plyometric training outside normal volleyball-specific practice.

Imaging the wave functions of adsorbed molecules.

The basis for a quantum-mechanical description of matter is electron wave functions. For atoms and molecules, their spatial distributions and phases are known as orbitals. Although orbitals are very powerful concepts, experimentally only the electron densities and -energy levels are directly observable. Regardless whether orbitals are observed in real space with scanning probe experiments, or in reciprocal space by photoemission, the phase information of the orbital is lost. Here, we show that the experimental momentum maps of angle-resolved photoemission from molecular orbitals can be transformed to real-space orbitals via an iterative procedure which also retrieves the lost phase information. This is demonstrated with images obtained of a number of orbitals of the molecules pentacene (C22H14) and perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic dianhydride (C24H8O6), adsorbed on silver, which are in excellent agreement with ab initio calculations. The procedure requires no a priori knowledge of the orbitals and is shown to be simple and robust.

Pre-Training Muscle Characteristics of Subjects Who Are Obese Determine How Well Exercise Training Will Improve Their Insulin Responsiveness.

Stuart, CA, Lee, ML, South, MA, Howell, MEA, Cartwright, BM, Ramsey, MW, and Stone, MH. Pre-training muscle characteristics of subjects who are obese determine how well exercise training will improve their insulin responsiveness. J Strength Cond Res 31(3): 798-808, 2017-Only half of prediabetic subjects who are obese who underwent exercise training without weight loss increased their insulin responsiveness. We hypothesized that those who improved their insulin responsiveness might have pretraining characteristics favoring a positive response to exercise training. Thirty nondiabetic subjects who were obese volunteered for 8 weeks of either strength training or endurance training. During training, subjects increased their caloric intake to prevent weight loss. Insulin responsiveness by euglycemic clamps and muscle fiber composition, and expression of muscle key biochemical pathways were quantified. Positive responders initially had 52% higher intermediate muscle fibers (fiber type IIa) with 27% lower slow-twitch fibers (type I) and 23% lower expression of muscle insulin receptors. Whether after weight training or stationary bike training, positive responders' fiber type shifted away from type I and type IIa fibers to an increased proportion of type IIx fibers (fast twitch). Muscle insulin receptor expression and glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) expression increased in all trained subjects, but these moderate changes did not consistently translate to improvement in whole-body insulin responsiveness. Exercise training of previously sedentary subjects who are obese can result in muscle remodeling and increased expression of key elements of the insulin pathway, but in the absence of weight loss, insulin sensitivity improvement was modest and limited to about half of the participants. Our data suggest rather than responders being more fit, they may have been less fit, only catching up to the other half of subjects who are obese whose insulin responsiveness did not increase beyond their pretraining baseline.

Effects of Short-Term Free-Weight and Semiblock Periodization Resistance Training on Metabolic Syndrome.

South, MA, Layne, AS, Stuart, CA, Triplett, NT, Ramsey, MW, Howell, ME, Sands, WA, Mizuguchi, S, Hornsby, WG, Kavanaugh, AA, and Stone, MH. Effects of short-term free-weight and semiblock periodization resistance training on metabolic syndrome. J Strength Cond Res 30(10): 2682-2696, 2016-The effects of short-term resistance training on performance and health variables associated with prolonged sedentary lifestyle and metabolic syndrome (MS) were investigated. Resistance training may alter a number of health-related, physiological, and performance variables. As a result, resistance training can be used as a valuable tool in ameliorating the effects of a sedentary lifestyle including those associated with MS. Nineteen previously sedentary subjects (10 with MS and 9 with nonmetabolic syndrome [NMS]) underwent 8 weeks of supervised resistance training. Maximum strength was measured using an isometric midthigh pull and resulting force-time curve. Vertical jump height (JH) and power were measured using a force plate. The muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and type were examined using muscle biopsy and standard analysis techniques. Aerobic power was measured on a cycle ergometer using a ParvoMedics 2400 Metabolic system. Endurance was measured as time to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. After training, maximum isometric strength, JH, jump power, and V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak increased by approximately 10% (or more) in both the metabolic and NMS groups (both male and female subjects). Over 8 weeks of training, body mass did not change statistically, but percent body fat decreased in subjects with the MS and in women, and lean body mass increased in all groups (p ≤ 0.05). Few alterations were noted in the fiber type. Men had larger CSAs compared those of with women, and there was a fiber-specific trend toward hypertrophy over time. In summary, 8 weeks of semiblock free-weight resistance training improved several performance variables and some cardiovascular factors associated with MS.

Paternal modeling, household availability, and paternal intake as predictors of fruit, vegetable, and sweetened beverage consumption among African American children.

The current study examined how African American fathers' dietary practices were associated with their children's dietary consumption. The sample consisted of one hundred and two African American fathers, who had children between the ages of three and thirteen. The fathers provided self-reports of their consumption of fruits, vegetables, and sugar sweetened beverages; modeling of healthy eating; household availability of foods and beverages; and their children's previously mentioned consumption. Sweetened beverages are considered to be any beverage that contains added sweeteners, high-fructose corn syrup, and/or fruit juice concentrates. Paternal modeling and household availability of food and beverages were measured using subscales from the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ). Three separate hierarchical regressions were performed to reveal that child fruit and vegetable consumption was only predicted by parental intake. Child sweetened beverage consumption, however, was predicted by paternal intake and household availability. Modeling did not significantly predict children's consumption of fruits, vegetables, or sweetened beverages. The findings suggest that paternal intake of fruits, vegetables, and sweetened beverages predicts child consumption of fruits, vegetables, and sweetened beverages. Family efforts should be made toward increasing father's consumption of healthy foods while decreasing the consumption and availability of sweetened beverages.

Orbital tomography: Molecular band maps, momentum maps and the imaging of real space orbitals of adsorbed molecules.

The frontier orbitals of molecules are the prime determinants of their chemical, optical and electronic properties. Arguably, the most direct method of addressing the (filled) frontier orbitals is ultra-violet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS). Although UPS is a mature technique from the early 1970s on, the angular distribution of the photoemitted electrons was thought to be too complex to be analysed quantitatively. Recently angle resolved UPS (ARUPS) work on conjugated molecules both, in ordered thick films and chemisorbed monolayers, has shown that the angular (momentum) distribution of the photocurrent from orbital emissions can be simply understood. The approach, based on the assumption of a plane wave final state is becoming known as orbital tomography. Here we will demonstrate, with selected examples of pentacene (5A) and sexiphenyl (6P), the potential of orbital tomography. First it will be shown how the full angular distribution of the photocurrent (momentum map) from a specific orbital is related to the real space orbital by a Fourier transform. Examples of the reconstruction of 5A orbitals will be given and the procedure for recovering the lost phase information will be outlined. We then move to examples of sexiphenyl where we interrogate the original band maps of thick sexiphenyl in the light of our understanding of orbital tomography that has developed since then. With comparison to theoretical simulations of the molecular band maps, the molecular conformation and orientation will be concluded. New results for the sexiphenyl monolayer on Al(1 1 0) will then be presented. From the band maps it will be concluded that the molecule is planarised and adopts a tilted geometry. Finally the momentum maps down to HOMO-11 will be analysed and real space orbitals reconstructed.

Evaluation of uncertainties in in situ and ex situ gamma measurements on land areas with low contamination levels.

Previous work on the characterisation of land areas with moderate contamination levels showed that in situ measurements made with a gamma detector can achieve lower levels of the random component of uncertainty than laboratory measurements of extracted samples. This was found when the variance caused by small-scale lateral heterogeneity of contaminants was included in the uncertainty estimation. The present paper documents the results of applying the same techniques of uncertainty estimation to an area with contamination levels that were lower by a factor of 10. If the same counting times were used, it would be expected that both measurement types would be affected by higher levels of random uncertainty in the individual measurements because of increased uncertainty from counting statistics and other factors such as interpretation of gamma spectra. However, when uncertainty due to sampling was included, it was found that both measurements methods were subject to similar combined uncertainties at individual locations. Using an assumption of the depth distributions of radionuclides that was supported by ex situ measurements, in situ measurements were able to produce averaging estimates with an approximate reduction of 50% in the standard error on the mean at ~50% of the cost of the ex situ measurements.