Pandemic Demand for SARS-CoV-2 Testing Led to Critical Supply and Workforce Shortages in U.S. Clinical and Public Health Laboratories.

COVID-19 has brought unprecedented challenges to clinical and public health laboratories. While U.S. laboratories have continued striving to provide quality test results during the pandemic, the uncertainty and lack of supplies became a significant hurdle, hindering day-to-day laboratory operations and the ability to increase testing capacity for both SARS-CoV-2 and non-COVID-19 testing. In addition, long-standing laboratory workforce shortages became apparent, hindering the ability of clinical and public health laboratories to rapidly increase testing. The American Society for Microbiology, the College of American Pathologists, the National Coalition of STD Directors, and the Emerging Infections Network independently conducted surveys in 2020 and early 2021 to assess the capacity of the nation's clinical laboratories to respond to the increase in demand for testing during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of these surveys highlighted the shortages of crucial supplies for SARS-CoV-2 testing and supplies for other routine laboratory diagnostics, as well as a shortage of trained personnel to perform testing. The conclusions are based on communications, observations, and the survey results of the clinical laboratory, public health, and professional organizations represented here. While the results of each survey considered separately may not be representative of the entire community, when considered together they provide remarkably similar results, further validating the findings and highlighting the importance of laboratory supply chains and the personnel capable of performing these tests for any response to a large-scale public health emergency.

In Vitro Testing of Trichomonas vaginalis Drug Susceptibility: Evaluation of Minimal Lethal Concentrations for Metronidazole and Tinidazole That Correspond With Treatment Failure.

BACKGROUND: The only drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for oral treatment of trichomoniasis belong to the 5-nitroimidazole group. Most individuals infected with Trichomonas vaginalis can be cured with a standard treatment of metronidazole or tinidazole, but it is estimated that more than 159,000 people fail treatment each year. Although a minimal lethal concentration (MLC) corresponding to treatment failure has been reported for metronidazole, the MLC for tinidazole associated with treatment failure has not been determined. We conducted a study using T. vaginalis isolates from women with reported treatment success or failure to determine these values. METHODS: We measured MLCs of 47 isolates obtained from women who had failed metronidazole treatment, 33 isolates from women who had failed tinidazole treatment, and 48 isolates from women successfully cured with metronidazole. The cutoff was calculated as the 95th percentile of MLCs of susceptible isolates for each drug. RESULTS: Our data confirmed that the MLC previously associated with metronidazole treatment failure is ≥50 µg/mL and identified the MLC associated with tinidazole treatment failure as ≥6.3 µg/mL. For metronidazole, the agreement between laboratory result and treatment outcome was 93.7%; for tinidazole, this agreement was 88.9%. CONCLUSIONS: The T. vaginalis susceptibility assay is useful for determining whether 5-nitroimidazole treatment failure in persons with trichomoniasis can be attributed to drug resistance. These results are useful for establishing interpretive guidance of test results, and MLC levels can help guide appropriate patient treatment.

Surveillance for Disseminated Gonococcal Infections, Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs)-United States, 2015-2019.

BACKGROUND: Disseminated gonococcal infections (DGIs) are thought to be uncommon; surveillance is limited, and case reports are analyzed retrospectively or in case clusters. We describe the population-level burden of culture-confirmed DGIs through the Active Bacterial Core surveillance (ABCs) system. METHODS: During 2015-2016, retrospective surveillance was conducted among residents in 2 ABCs areas and prospectively in 3 ABCs areas during 2017-2019. A DGI case was defined as isolation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from a normally sterile site. A case report form was completed for each case and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) was performed on available isolates. RESULTS: During 2015-2019, 77 DGI cases were identified (a rate of 0.13 cases per 100 000 population) and accounted for 0.06% of all reported gonorrhea cases in the 3 surveillance areas. Most DGI cases were male (64%), non-Hispanic Black (68%), and ranged from 16 to 67 years of age; blood (55%) and joint (40%) were the most common sterile sites. Among 29 isolates with AST results during 2017-2019, all were susceptible to ceftriaxone. CONCLUSIONS: DGI is an infrequent complication of N gonorrhoeae; because it can quickly develop antimicrobial resistance, continued DGI surveillance, including monitoring trends in antimicrobial susceptibility, could help inform DGI treatment recommendations.

Chlamydia trachomatis Variants Escaping Detection in the Aptima Combo 2 Assay in the United States.

BACKGROUND: The Aptima Combo 2 (AC2) assay manufactured by Hologic, Inc., detects Neisseria gonorrhoeae and/or Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) in urogenital and extragenital specimens by targeting either a 16S rRNA (N. gonorrhoeae) or 23S rRNA (CT) region. In 2019, a mutation (C1515T) in the 23S rRNA region was reported to cause false-negative/equivocal results in specimens collected in Finland. Specimens containing this variant (Fl-nvCT) were also discovered internationally. Working with specimens submitted to a large commercial laboratory, we sought to determine if this variant was also present in the United States. METHODS: A subset (n = 401) of specimens tested with the AC2 assay collected during a 5-week period in late 2019/early 2020 were evaluated using an updated AC2 assay. RESULTS: Although the FI-nvCT variant was not detected within this specimen panel, 2 CT variants containing 23S rRNA mutations (A1518G, G1526A) were identified. The updated AC2 assay targeting an additional region of the 23S rRNA detected both of these variants. A retrospective study of >18 million AC2 results tested between 2018 and 2019 did not display a decrease in CT positivity. CONCLUSIONS: Although we did not detect the Fl-nvCT variant among US specimens, we show evidence that the low occurrence of similar diagnostic-escape mutants can be detected with an updated AC2 assay using multiple 23S rRNA targets.

High Plasmid Gene Protein 3 (Pgp3) Chlamydia trachomatis Seropositivity, Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, and Infertility Among Women, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, United States, 2013-2016.

BACKGROUND: Chlamydia trachomatis causes pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and tubal infertility. Plasmid gene protein 3 antibody (Pgp3Ab) detects prior chlamydial infections. We evaluated for an association of high chlamydial seropositivity with sequelae using a Pgp3Ab multiplex bead array (Pgp3AbMBA). METHODS: We performed chlamydia Pgp3AbMBA on sera from women 18-39 years old participating in the 2013-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) with urine chlamydia nucleic acid amplification test results. High chlamydial seropositivity was defined as a median fluorescence intensity (MFI ≥ 50 000; low-positive was MFI > 551-<50 000. Weighted US population high-positive, low-positive, and negative Pgp3Ab chlamydia seroprevalence and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were compared for women with chlamydial infection, self-reported PID, and infertility. RESULTS: Of 2339 women aged 18-39 years, 1725 (73.7%) had sera, and 1425 were sexually experienced. Overall, 104 women had high positive Pgp3Ab (5.4% [95% CI 4.0-7.0] of US women); 407 had lowpositive Pgp3Ab (25.1% [95% CI 21.5-29.0]), and 914 had negative Pgp3Ab (69.5% [95% CI 65.5-73.4]). Among women with high Pgp3Ab, infertility prevalence was 2.0 (95% CI 1.1-3.7) times higher than among Pgp3Ab-negative women (19.6% [95% CI 10.5-31.7] versus 9.9% [95% CI 7.7-12.4]). For women with low Pgp3Ab, PID prevalence was 7.9% (95% CI 4.6-12.6) compared to 2.3% (95% CI 1.4-3.6) in negative Pgp3Ab. CONCLUSIONS: High chlamydial Pgp3Ab seropositivity was associated with infertility although small sample size limited evaluation of an association of high seropositivity with PID. In infertile women, Pgp3Ab may be a marker of prior chlamydial infection.

Atypical Mutation in Neisseria gonorrhoeae 23S rRNA Associated with High-Level Azithromycin Resistance.

A2059G mutation in the 23S rRNA gene is the only reported mechanism conferring high-level azithromycin resistance (HL-AZMR) in Neisseria gonorrhoeae Through U.S. gonococcal antimicrobial resistance surveillance projects, we identified four HL-AZMR gonococcal isolates lacking this mutational genotype. Genetic analysis revealed an A2058G mutation of 23S rRNA alleles in all four isolates. In vitro selected gonococcal strains with homozygous A2058G recapitulated the HL-AZMR phenotype. Taken together, we postulate that the A2058G mutation confers HL-AZMR in N. gonorrhoeae.

At-Home Specimen Self-Collection and Self-Testing for Sexually Transmitted Infection Screening Demand Accelerated by the COVID-19 Pandemic: a Review of Laboratory Implementation Issues.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic reduced the sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing volume due to social-distancing and stay-at-home orders, among other reasons. These events highlighted previously known benefits of at-home STI self-testing or specimen self-collection and accelerated testing demand via telemedicine. We review testing outside traditional clinical settings. We focus on three curable bacterial STIs among the top 10 U.S. nationally notifiable conditions with screening recommendations: syphilis, gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae, also known as the gonococcus [GC]), and chlamydia (Chlamydia trachomatis). At least 19 million GC/C. trachomatis (GC/CT) screening or diagnostic tests are performed annually, presenting a considerable challenge during the pandemic. Unlike for HIV, STI at-home tests are currently not commercially available. However, innovative telemedicine providers currently offer services where specimen self-collection kits are mailed to patients at home who then ship them to laboratories for processing. We discuss technical and regulatory aspects of modifications for home-based specimen self-collection. The telemedicine provider typically manages and communicates results, provides linkage to care, and is responsible for billing and case reporting. We also describe rapid testing devices in development that may present an opportunity for future self-testing. In summary, COVID-19 has accelerated the evaluation and development of STI self-tests and specimen self-collection. The remaining obstacles are high price, regulatory approval, support for laboratories offering the service, and uncertainty regarding whether target populations with the greatest need are reached effectively. However, increased testing, convenience, and privacy are potential benefits that may enhance uptake and outlast the pandemic.

Implementation and Evaluation of Gradient Strip Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing in US Public Health Laboratories to Respond to Resistant Gonorrhea.

BACKGROUND: Gradient strip antimicrobial susceptibility testing using Etest is conducted by local public health jurisdictions participating in the Strengthening the US Response to Resistant Gonorrhea (SURRG) program to inform public health responses to resistant gonorrhea. Proficiency testing results across the participating laboratories were analyzed and a comparison of Etest with the agar dilution method was conducted. METHODS: Laboratories participating in SURRG performed Etest for azithromycin (AZM), cefixime (CFX), and ceftriaxone (CRO). Concurrence between minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) obtained with Etest versus the agar dilution method using corresponding isolates was defined as ±1 double dilution. Specific levels of reduced susceptibility were termed "alerts" and included isolates with the following MICs: ≥2.0 µg/mL (AZM), ≥0.25 µg/mL (CFX), and ≥0.125 µg/mL (CRO). Categorical (alert/nonalert) agreement was calculated for MICs determined using Etest and agar dilution methods. RESULTS: Strengthening the US Response to Resistant Gonorrhea laboratories had high proficiency testing scores (≥98%) and low levels of interlaboratory variations in MICs. The overall concurrence of MICs (essential agreement) determined using agar dilution, and Etest was 96% (CRO), 96% (CFX), and 95% (AZM). Depending on the antibiotic tested, between 27% and 66% of isolates with alert MICs determined by Etest also had alert MICs using the reference agar dilution methodology; however, most of these alert MICs were detected at threshold levels. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that MICs produced by SURRG laboratories using Etest have a high level of concurrence with agar dilution. Although confirmation of specific alert MICs varied, Etest facilities rapid detection and response to emerging resistant gonorrhea.

Genomic Analysis of the Predominant Strains and Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants Within 1479 Neisseria gonorrhoeae Isolates From the US Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project in 2018.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) isolates with elevated minimum inhibitory concentrations to various antibiotics continues to rise in the United States and globally. Genomic analysis provides a powerful tool for surveillance of circulating strains, antimicrobial resistance determinants, and understanding of transmission through a population. METHODS: Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates collected from the US Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project in 2018 (n = 1479) were sequenced and characterized. Whole-genome sequencing was used to identify sequence types, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and phylogenetic relationships across demographic and geographic populations. RESULTS: Genetic characterization identified that (1) 80% of the GC isolates were represented in 33 multilocus sequence types, (2) isolates clustered in 23 major phylogenetic clusters with select phenotypic and demographic prevalence, and (3) common antimicrobial resistance determinants associated with low-level or high-level decreased susceptibility or resistance to relevant antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS: Characterization of this 2018 Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project genomic data set, which is the largest US whole-genome sequence data set to date, sets the basis for future prospective studies, and establishes a genomic baseline of GC populations for local and national monitoring.

Exploring and Comparing the Structure of Sexual Networks Affected by Neisseria gonorrhoeae Using Sexual Partner Services Investigation and Genomic Data.

BACKGROUND: Sexual networks are difficult to construct because of incomplete sexual partner data. The proximity of people within a network may be inferred from genetically similar infections. We explored genomic data combined with partner services investigation (PSI) data to extend our understanding of sexual networks affected by Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG). METHODS: We used 2017-2019 PSI and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data from 8 jurisdictions participating in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Strengthening the US Response to Resistant Gonorrhea (SURRG) project. Clusters were identified from sexual contacts and through genetically similar NG isolates. Sexual mixing patterns were characterized by describing the clusters by the individual's gender and gender of their sex partners. RESULTS: Our study included 4627 diagnoses of NG infection (81% sequenced), 2455 people received a PSI, 393 people were negative contacts of cases, and 495 were contacts with an unknown NG status. We identified 823 distinct clusters using PSI data combined with WGS data. Of cases that were not linked to any other case using PSI data, 37% were linked when using WGS data. Overall, 40% of PSI cases were allocated to a larger cluster when PSI and WGS data were combined compared with PSI data alone. Mixed clusters containing women, men who report sex with women, and men who report sex with men were common when using the WGS data either alone or in combination with the PSI data. CONCLUSIONS: Combining PSI and WGS data improves our understanding of sexual network connectivity.

Expanding U.S. Laboratory Capacity for Neisseria gonorrhoeae Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing and Whole-Genome Sequencing through the CDC's Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory Network.

U.S. gonorrhea rates are rising, and antibiotic-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae (AR-Ng) is an urgent public health threat. Since implementation of nucleic acid amplification tests for N. gonorrhoeae identification, the capacity for culturing N. gonorrhoeae in the United States has declined, along with the ability to perform culture-based antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST). Yet AST is critical for detecting and monitoring AR-Ng. In 2016, the CDC established the Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory Network (AR Lab Network) to shore up the national capacity for detecting several resistance threats including N. gonorrhoeae AR-Ng testing, a subactivity of the CDC's AR Lab Network, is performed in a tiered network of approximately 35 local laboratories, four regional laboratories (state public health laboratories in Maryland, Tennessee, Texas, and Washington), and the CDC's national reference laboratory. Local laboratories receive specimens from approximately 60 clinics associated with the Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project (GISP), enhanced GISP (eGISP), and the program Strengthening the U.S. Response to Resistant Gonorrhea (SURRG). They isolate and ship up to 20,000 isolates to regional laboratories for culture-based agar dilution AST with seven antibiotics and for whole-genome sequencing of up to 5,000 isolates. The CDC further examines concerning isolates and monitors genetic AR markers. During 2017 and 2018, the network tested 8,214 and 8,628 N. gonorrhoeae isolates, respectively, and the CDC received 531 and 646 concerning isolates and 605 and 3,159 sequences, respectively. In summary, the AR Lab Network supported the laboratory capacity for N. gonorrhoeae AST and associated genetic marker detection, expanding preexisting notification and analysis systems for resistance detection. Continued, robust AST and genomic capacity can help inform national public health monitoring and intervention.

Legionnaires' Disease Outbreak Caused by Endemic Strain of Legionella pneumophila, New York, New York, USA, 2015.

During the summer of 2015, New York, New York, USA, had one of the largest and deadliest outbreaks of Legionnaires' disease in the history of the United States. A total of 138 cases and 16 deaths were linked to a single cooling tower in the South Bronx. Analysis of environmental samples and clinical isolates showed that sporadic cases of legionellosis before, during, and after the outbreak could be traced to a slowly evolving, single-ancestor strain. Detection of an ostensibly virulent Legionella strain endemic to the Bronx community suggests potential risk for future cases of legionellosis in the area. The genetic homogeneity of the Legionella population in this area might complicate investigations and interpretations of future outbreaks of Legionnaires' disease.

Vital Signs: Health Care-Associated Legionnaires' Disease Surveillance Data from 20 States and a Large Metropolitan Area - United States, 2015.

BACKGROUND: Legionnaires' disease, a severe pneumonia, is typically acquired through inhalation of aerosolized water containing Legionella bacteria. Legionella can grow in the complex water systems of buildings, including health care facilities. Effective water management programs could prevent the growth of Legionella in building water systems. METHODS: Using national surveillance data, Legionnaires' disease cases were characterized from the 21 jurisdictions (20 U.S. states and one large metropolitan area) that reported exposure information for ≥90% of 2015 Legionella infections. An assessment of whether cases were health care-associated was completed; definite health care association was defined as hospitalization or long-term care facility residence for the entire 10 days preceding symptom onset, and possible association was defined as any exposure to a health care facility for a portion of the 10 days preceding symptom onset. All other Legionnaires' disease cases were considered unrelated to health care. RESULTS: A total of 2,809 confirmed Legionnaires' disease cases were reported from the 21 jurisdictions, including 85 (3%) definite and 468 (17%) possible health care-associated cases. Among the 21 jurisdictions, 16 (76%) reported 1-21 definite health care-associated cases per jurisdiction. Among definite health care-associated cases, the majority (75, 88%) occurred in persons aged ≥60 years, and exposures occurred at 72 facilities (15 hospitals and 57 long-term care facilities). The case fatality rate was 25% for definite and 10% for possible health care-associated Legionnaires' disease. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE: Exposure to Legionella from health care facility water systems can result in Legionnaires' disease. The high case fatality rate of health care-associated Legionnaires' disease highlights the importance of case prevention and response activities, including implementation of effective water management programs and timely case identification.

A Novel Botulinum Neurotoxin, Previously Reported as Serotype H, Has a Hybrid-Like Structure With Regions of Similarity to the Structures of Serotypes A and F and Is Neutralized With Serotype A Antitoxin.

Botulism is a potentially fatal paralytic disease caused by the action of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) on nerve cells. There are 7 known serotypes (A-G) of BoNT and up to 40 genetic variants. Clostridium botulinum strain IBCA10-7060 was recently reported to produce BoNT serotype B (BoNT/B) and a novel BoNT, designated as BoNT/H. The BoNT gene (bont) sequence of BoNT/H was compared to known bont sequences. Genetic analysis suggested that BoNT/H has a hybrid-like structure containing regions of similarity to the structures of BoNT/A1 and BoNT/F5. This novel BoNT was serologically characterized by the mouse neutralization assay and a neuronal cell-based assay. The toxic effects of this hybrid-like BoNT were completely eliminated by existing serotype A antitoxins, including those contained in multivalent therapeutic antitoxin products that are the mainstay of human botulism treatment.

Genomic Resolution of Outbreak-Associated Legionella pneumophila Serogroup 1 Isolates from New York State.

UNLABELLED: A total of 30 Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 isolates representing 10 separate legionellosis laboratory investigations ("outbreaks") that occurred in New York State between 2004 and 2012 were selected for evaluation of whole-genome sequencing (WGS) approaches for molecular subtyping of this organism. Clinical and environmental isolates were available for each outbreak and were initially examined by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Sequence-based typing alleles were extracted from WGS data yielding complete sequence types (ST) for isolates representing 8 out of the 10 outbreaks evaluated in this study. Isolates from separate outbreaks sharing the same ST also contained the fewest differences in core genome single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and the greatest proportion of identical allele sequences in a whole-genome multilocus sequence typing (wgMLST) scheme. Both core SNP and wgMLST analyses distinguished isolates from separate outbreaks, including those from two outbreaks sharing indistinguishable PFGE profiles. Isolates from a hospital-associated outbreak spanning multiple years shared indistinguishable PFGE profiles but displayed differences in their genome sequences, suggesting the presence of multiple environmental sources. Finally, the rtx gene demonstrated differences in the repeat region sequence among ST1 isolates from different outbreaks, suggesting that variation in this gene may be useful for targeted molecular subtyping approaches for L. pneumophila This study demonstrates the utility of various genome sequence analysis approaches for L. pneumophila for environmental source attribution studies while furthering the understanding of Legionella ecology. IMPORTANCE: We demonstrate that whole-genome sequencing helps to improve resolution of Legionella pneumophila isolated during laboratory investigations of legionellosis compared to traditional subtyping methods. These data can be important in confirming the environmental sources of legionellosis outbreaks. Moreover, we evaluated various methods to analyze genome sequence data to help resolve outbreak-related isolates.

Functional characterization of botulinum neurotoxin serotype H as a hybrid of known serotypes F and A (BoNT F/A).

A unique strain of Clostridium botulinum (IBCA10-7060) was recently discovered which produces two toxins: botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) serotype B and a novel BoNT reported as serotype H. Previous molecular assessment showed that the light chain (LC) of the novel BoNT most resembled the bont of the light chain of known subtype F5, while the C-terminus of the heavy chain (HC) most resembled the binding domain of serotype A. We evaluated the functionality of both toxins produced in culture by first incorporating an immunoaffinity step using monoclonal antibodies to purify BoNT from culture supernatants and tested each immune-captured neurotoxin with full-length substrates vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP-2), synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25), syntaxin, and shortened peptides representing the substrates. The BoNT/B produced by this strain behaved as a typical BoNT/B, having immunoaffinity for anti-B monoclonal antibodies and cleaving both full length VAMP-2 and a peptide based on the sequence of VAMP-2 in the expected location. As expected, there was no activity toward SNAP-25 or syntaxin. The novel BoNT demonstrated immunoaffinity for anti-A monoclonal antibodies but did not cleave SNAP-25 as expected for BoNT/A. Instead, the novel BoNT cleaved VAMP-2 and VAMP-2-based peptides in the same location as BoNT/F5. This is the first discovery of a single botulinum neurotoxin with BoNT/A antigenicity and BoNT/F light chain function. This work suggests that the newly reported serotype H may actually be a hybrid of previously known BoNT serotype A and serotype F, specifically subtype F5.

Laboratory Investigation of the First Case of Botulism Caused by Clostridium butyricum Type E Toxin in the United States.

We report here the laboratory investigation of the first known case of botulism in the United States caused by Clostridium butyricum type E. This investigation demonstrates the importance of extensive microbiological examination of specimens, which resulted in the isolation of this organism.