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1.
Int J Cancer ; 145(12): 3244-3256, 2019 12 15.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30873591

RESUMEN

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBPs) have been implicated in the aetiology of several cancers. To better understand whether anthropometric, behavioural and sociodemographic factors may play a role in cancer risk via IGF signalling, we examined the cross-sectional associations of these exposures with circulating concentrations of IGFs (IGF-I and IGF-II) and IGFBPs (IGFBP-1, IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3). The Endogenous Hormones, Nutritional Biomarkers and Prostate Cancer Collaborative Group dataset includes individual participant data from 16,024 male controls (i.e. without prostate cancer) aged 22-89 years from 22 prospective studies. Geometric means of protein concentrations were estimated using analysis of variance, adjusted for relevant covariates. Older age was associated with higher concentrations of IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-2 and lower concentrations of IGF-I, IGF-II and IGFBP-3. Higher body mass index was associated with lower concentrations of IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-2. Taller height was associated with higher concentrations of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 and lower concentrations of IGFBP-1. Smokers had higher concentrations of IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-2 and lower concentrations of IGFBP-3 than nonsmokers. Higher alcohol consumption was associated with higher concentrations of IGF-II and lower concentrations of IGF-I and IGFBP-2. African Americans had lower concentrations of IGF-II, IGFBP-1, IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3 and Hispanics had lower IGF-I, IGF-II and IGFBP-3 than non-Hispanic whites. These findings indicate that a range of anthropometric, behavioural and sociodemographic factors are associated with circulating concentrations of IGFs and IGFBPs in men, which will lead to a greater understanding of the mechanisms through which these factors influence cancer risk.


Asunto(s)
Biomarcadores de Tumor/sangre , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/sangre , Factor II del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Factor I del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Neoplasias/sangre , Adulto , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Antropometría/métodos , Biomarcadores de Tumor/metabolismo , Estudios Transversales , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Neoplasias/etiología , Neoplasias/metabolismo , Estudios Prospectivos , Adulto Joven
2.
Int J Cancer ; 139(7): 1520-33, 2016 10 01.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27225428

RESUMEN

Circulating insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and their binding proteins (IGFBPs) are associated with prostate cancer. Using genetic variants as instruments for IGF peptides, we investigated whether these associations are likely to be causal. We identified from the literature 56 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IGF axis previously associated with biomarker levels (8 from a genome-wide association study [GWAS] and 48 in reported candidate genes). In ∼700 men without prostate cancer and two replication cohorts (N ∼ 900 and ∼9,000), we examined the properties of these SNPS as instrumental variables (IVs) for IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3. Those confirmed as strong IVs were tested for association with prostate cancer risk, low (< 7) vs. high (≥ 7) Gleason grade, localised vs. advanced stage, and mortality, in 22,936 controls and 22,992 cases. IV analysis was used in an attempt to estimate the causal effect of circulating IGF peptides on prostate cancer. Published SNPs in the IGFBP1/IGFBP3 gene region, particularly rs11977526, were strong instruments for IGF-II and IGFBP-3, less so for IGF-I. Rs11977526 was associated with high (vs. low) Gleason grade (OR per IGF-II/IGFBP-3 level-raising allele 1.05; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.10). Using rs11977526 as an IV we estimated the causal effect of a one SD increase in IGF-II (∼265 ng/mL) on risk of high vs. low grade disease as 1.14 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.31). Because of the potential for pleiotropy of the genetic instruments, these findings can only causally implicate the IGF pathway in general, not any one specific biomarker.


Asunto(s)
Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/genética , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Neoplasias de la Próstata/sangre , Neoplasias de la Próstata/genética , Somatomedinas/genética , Somatomedinas/metabolismo , Anciano , Estudios de Casos y Controles , Estudio de Asociación del Genoma Completo , Humanos , Estudios Longitudinales , Masculino , Análisis de la Aleatorización Mendeliana/métodos , Persona de Mediana Edad , Clasificación del Tumor , Estadificación de Neoplasias , Polimorfismo de Nucleótido Simple , Neoplasias de la Próstata/epidemiología , Neoplasias de la Próstata/patología , Reino Unido/epidemiología
3.
BJU Int ; 118(2): 193-204, 2016 08.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27087414

RESUMEN

To conduct a systematic review of the risks of short-term outcomes after major treatments for clinically localised prostate cancer. MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Library were searched from 2004 to January 2013. Study arms that included ≥100 men with localised prostate cancer in receipt of surgery, radiotherapy or active surveillance and reported symptomatic and quality-of-life (QoL) data from 6 to 60 months after treatment were eligible. Data were extracted by one reviewer and checked by another. In all, 64 studies (80 treatment cohorts) were included. Most were single treatment cohorts from the USA or Europe. Radiotherapy was the most common treatment (40 cohorts, including 31 brachytherapy cohorts) followed by prostatectomy (39 cohorts), with only one active surveillance cohort. Most frequently measured symptoms were urinary, followed by sexual, and bowel; QoL was assessed in only 17 cohorts. Most studies used validated measures, although poor data reporting and differences between studies meant that it was not possible to pool data. Data on the precise impact of short-term symptomatic and QoL outcomes after treatment for localised prostate cancer are of insufficient quality for clear guidance to men about the risks to these aspects of their lives. It is important that future studies focus on collecting core outcomes through validated measures and comply with reporting guidelines, so that clear and accurate information can be derived for men considering screening or treatment for prostate cancer.


Asunto(s)
Neoplasias de la Próstata/terapia , Calidad de Vida , Humanos , Masculino , Neoplasias de la Próstata/patología
4.
Cancer Causes Control ; 24(1): 39-45, 2013 Jan.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23085814

RESUMEN

PURPOSE: Active monitoring of prostate cancer requires the selection of low-risk cancers and subsequent identification of disease progression. Our objective was to determine whether serum insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II, IGF-binding protein (IGFBP)-2 or IGFBP-3 at diagnosis (potential biomarkers of prognosis), and repeated measures of IGFBP-2 (potential biomarker of tumour growth), were associated with annual change in PSA and PSA doubling time (PSADT), proxies for disease progression. METHODS: We investigated associations of circulating IGFs and IGFBPs with PSA measures using multilevel models, in 909 men (recruited between 1999 and 2009) with PSA-detected clinically localized prostate cancer undergoing active monitoring in the United Kingdom. Each man had an average of 14 measurements of PSA during a mean of 4-year follow-up. RESULTS: IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3 were not associated with baseline PSA. There was weak evidence that IGF-I at diagnosis was positively associated with a rapid post-diagnosis PSADT (≤4 years vs. >4 years): OR 1.34 (95 % CI 0.98, 1.81) per SD increase in IGF-I. IGFBP-2 increased by 2.1 % (95 % CI 1.4, 2.8) per year between 50 and 70 years, with no association between serial IGFBP-2 levels and PSADT. There was no evidence that serum IGF-II, IGFBP-2, or IGFBP-3, or post-diagnosis IGFBP-2, were associated with PSA kinetics in men with PSA-detected localized prostate cancer. CONCLUSIONS: The weak association of IGF-I with PSADT requires replication in larger datasets, and more definitive evidence will be provided on the maturity of long-term active monitoring cohorts with relevant clinical outcomes (metastasis and prostate cancer mortality).


Asunto(s)
Biomarcadores de Tumor , Carcinoma/terapia , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/fisiología , Monitoreo Fisiológico/métodos , Neoplasias de la Próstata/terapia , Somatomedinas/fisiología , Anciano , Biomarcadores de Tumor/análisis , Biomarcadores de Tumor/sangre , Carcinoma/sangre , Carcinoma/diagnóstico , Carcinoma/patología , Estudios de Seguimiento , Humanos , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/análisis , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/sangre , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Observación , Población , Antígeno Prostático Específico/sangre , Neoplasias de la Próstata/sangre , Neoplasias de la Próstata/diagnóstico , Neoplasias de la Próstata/patología , Somatomedinas/análisis
5.
Cancer Causes Control ; 23(2): 347-54, 2012 Feb.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22183619

RESUMEN

CONTEXT: Many studies have reported associations of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) with prostate cancer development, but none have investigated their association with fatal progression of prostate cancer. OBJECTIVE: We investigated associations of circulating IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3 with all-cause and prostate cancer mortality in men with clinically identified prostate cancer, stratified by whether localised (stage T1 or T2) or advanced (T3, T4, N1 or M1) at diagnosis. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: UK hospital-based cohort study of 396 men with prostate cancer, diagnosed between 1990 and 2008, with mean follow-up of 3.7 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: All-cause and prostate cancer-specific mortality. RESULTS: In men with advanced cancer, there was some evidence that IGF-I was positively associated (HR 1.20; 95% CI: 0.96, 1.49; p = 0.11) and IGFBP-3 was inversely associated (HR 0.84; 95% CI: 0.70, 1.01; p = 0.07) with all-cause mortality after controlling for age, treatment status, smoking, prostate-specific antigen and Gleason grade at diagnosis. There was some evidence that IGF-I was positively associated with prostate cancer mortality in advanced cases (HR 1.23; 95% CI: 0.94, 1.62; p = 0.13). In advanced cancers, associations of IGF-I with all-cause (HR 1.68; 95% CI: 1.28, 2.23; p < 0.001) and prostate cancer-specific (HR 1.59; 95% CI: 1.11, 2.28; p = 0.01) mortality strengthened (and were conventionally statistically significant) after further controlling for IGFBP-3. CONCLUSIONS: Measures of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 may have potential as prognostic markers in predicting risk of death in men with advanced prostate cancer. Large, prospective studies with repeat IGFs and IGFBPs are now required.


Asunto(s)
Factor II del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Factor I del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Neoplasias de la Próstata/sangre , Neoplasias de la Próstata/mortalidad , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Estudios de Cohortes , Progresión de la Enfermedad , Estudios de Seguimiento , Humanos , Proteína 2 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Proteína 3 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Masculino , Estadificación de Neoplasias , Pronóstico , Estudios Prospectivos , Neoplasias de la Próstata/metabolismo , Factores de Riesgo , Reino Unido/epidemiología
6.
Cancer Causes Control ; 23(6): 907-17, 2012 Jun.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22527168

RESUMEN

BACKGROUND: There is evidence of associations between insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), IGF-II, insulin-like binding protein-2 (IGFBP-2), IGFBP-3, and prostate cancer risk. This study examines the association between dietary factors associated with prostate cancer and serum levels of these peptides. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis of self-reported 12-month dietary intake with serum IGF and IGFBP levels was performed using data from 1,798 subjects screened negative for prostate cancer as part of a UK multicenter trial comparing treatments for this condition. Multivariable linear regression models tested associations of diet with IGFs and IGFBPs. RESULTS: For a one standard deviation (SD) increase in dairy product and dairy protein intake, IGF-I increased by 5.28 ng/mL (95 % confidence interval: 2.64, 7.92 ng/mL) and 6.02 ng/mL (3.34, 8.71 ng/mL), respectively. A 25 % increase in calcium and selenium intake was associated with an increase in IGF-I of 5.92 ng/mL (3.77, 8.07 ng/mL) and 2.61 ng/mL (1.10, 4.13 ng/mL), respectively. A one SD increase in animal protein was associated with a decrease in IGFBP-2 of 6.20 % (-8.91, -3.41 %), and there was some evidence of an inverse association with dairy protein and calcium. There was no evidence of any dietary associations with IGFBP-3 or IGF-II. CONCLUSIONS: Diet is associated with IGF-I and IGFBP-2 levels in men in the UK, and these peptides warrant further investigation as part of randomized trials of dietary interventions to reduce the risk or progression of prostate cancer. There is no evidence that IGF-II or IGFBP-3 are mediators of dietary associations with prostate cancer.


Asunto(s)
Dieta , Proteína 2 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/sangre , Proteína 3 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/sangre , Factor II del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Factor I del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Neoplasias de la Próstata/sangre , Calcio de la Dieta/administración & dosificación , Calcio de la Dieta/metabolismo , Estudios de Casos y Controles , Estudios Transversales , Proteínas en la Dieta/administración & dosificación , Proteínas en la Dieta/metabolismo , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Neoplasias de la Próstata/metabolismo , Factores de Riesgo , Selenio/administración & dosificación , Selenio/metabolismo , Reino Unido
7.
Cancer Causes Control ; 21(11): 1829-42, 2010 Nov.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20652394

RESUMEN

OBJECTIVE: Adiposity is positively associated with advanced, metastatic, and fatal prostate cancer. Obesity-related variations in insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I and -II) and their binding proteins (IGFBPs) could underlie these associations. METHODS: We investigated associations of adiposity throughout the life course (determined retrospectively) with serum levels of IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3 in a population-based study of 1,106 healthy men. RESULTS: IGF-I and IGF-II showed inverted U-shaped associations with adult body mass index (BMI) (p quadratic model = 0.04 and 0.06, respectively), although differences between quartiles with the highest and lowest IGF-I levels were small (no more than 5 ng/ml). IGFBP-2 was strongly inversely related to adult BMI (-22% change per SD increase in BMI; 95% confidence interval (CI) -24% to -19%) and waist circumference (-18% change per SD increase in waist circumference; 95% CI -20% to -15%) (p < 0.001). IGFBP-3 was positively related to BMI (63.5 ng/ml increase per SD increase in BMI; 95% CI -2.69 to 129.8, p = 0.06). IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3 were strongly related to body shape change from childhood to adulthood, with men who gained the most weight having the lowest IGFBP-2 (9% lower per category body shape change; 95% CI -11% to -7%, p < 0.001) and the highest IGFBP-3 (50 ng/ml increase per category; 95% CI 8 to 92, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: We provide evidence that adiposity and change in body shape through the life course are related to the IGF system, with the largest effect of adiposity being to lower IGFBP-2, a possible marker of insulin resistance. The results suggest that circulating IGF-I levels may not be important mediators of the association of adiposity with aggressive prostate cancer, but the role of IGFBP-2 deserves further investigation.


Asunto(s)
Adiposidad , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/sangre , Somatomedinas/metabolismo , Adulto , Composición Corporal , Índice de Masa Corporal , Estudios de Cohortes , Humanos , Resistencia a la Insulina , Proteína 2 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/sangre , Proteína 2 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Proteína 3 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/sangre , Proteína 3 de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Factor I del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Factor II del Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Masculino , Obesidad/sangre , Próstata/metabolismo , Neoplasias de la Próstata/sangre , Ensayos Clínicos Controlados Aleatorios como Asunto , Estudios Retrospectivos , Circunferencia de la Cintura
8.
Int J Cancer ; 124(10): 2416-29, 2009 May 15.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-19142965

RESUMEN

Insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I, IGF-II) and their binding proteins (IGFBP-1-6) play a key role in cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis, suggesting possible involvement in carcinogenesis. Several epidemiological studies show associations of IGFs with prostate cancer. We searched the published literature for all studies relating levels of IGFs or IGFBPs with prostate cancer. We performed random effects meta-analysis to calculate summary odds ratios. The number of studies (prostate cancer cases) included in each meta-analysis were 42 (7,481) IGF-I; 10 (923) IGF-II; 3 (485) IGFBP-1; 5 (577) IGFBP-2; 29 (6,541) IGFBP-3 and 11 (3,545) IGF-1:IGFBP-3 ratio. The pooled odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) per standard deviation increase in peptide were: IGF-I, OR = 1.21 (1.07, 1.36); IGF-II, OR = 1.17 (0.93, 1.47); IGFBP-1, OR = 1.21 (0.62, 2.33); IGFBP-2, OR = 1.18 (0.90, 1.54); IGFBP-3, OR = 0.88 (0.79, 0.98); IGFI:IGFBP-3 ratio, OR = 1.10 (0.97, 1.24). For all exposures, there was substantial heterogeneity (all I(2) > 75%), partly explained by study design: the magnitude of associations was smaller in prospective vs. retrospective studies, and for IGFBP-3, the inverse association with prostate cancer risk was seen in retrospective but not prospective studies. There was weak evidence that associations of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 with prostate cancer were stronger for advanced disease. Our meta-analysis confirms that raised circulating lGF-I is positively associated with prostate cancer risk. Associations between IGFBP-3 and prostate cancer were inconsistent, and there was little evidence for a role of IGF-II, IGFBP-1 or IGFBP-2 in prostate cancer risk.


Asunto(s)
Péptidos/sangre , Neoplasias de la Próstata/sangre , Somatomedinas/metabolismo , Humanos , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/química , Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Masculino , Factores de Riesgo , Somatomedinas/química
9.
J Health Serv Res Policy ; 14(2): 77-81, 2009 Apr.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-19299260

RESUMEN

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness and cost of obtaining consent for review of medical records within the passively observed non-intervention arm of a cluster randomized controlled trial, 'Comparison Arm for ProtecT'. METHODS: Two hundred and thirty men, who had been notified to the trial by cancer registries as having prostate cancer, were sent a consent form from their general practitioner or secondary care clinician. The consent rate of participants to the review of their medical records and the estimated costs of the process were evaluated. RESULTS: One hundred and seventy-nine men (84%: 95% CI = 78%, 89%) consented to have their medical notes reviewed at an estimated cost of pound123 (euro172, $248) per person. CONCLUSIONS: A high consent rate for review of medical notes is achievable but at a cost. There needs to be renewed debate about the automatic need for consent to review medical records where the chance of personal harm is negligible and the purpose of the review is to provide robust evidence to save lives, prevent needless suffering, and improve the effectiveness and efficiency of health care delivery.


Asunto(s)
Consentimiento Informado , Auditoría Médica , Análisis Costo-Beneficio , Medicina Familiar y Comunitaria , Estudios de Factibilidad , Investigación sobre Servicios de Salud , Humanos , Masculino , Neoplasias de la Próstata , Ensayos Clínicos Controlados Aleatorios como Asunto , Reino Unido
10.
Cancer Res ; 72(2): 503-15, 2012 Jan 15.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22106399

RESUMEN

Circulating insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) has been studied extensively in prostate cancer, but there is still little information about IGFs and IGF-binding proteins (IGFBP) in cancers detected by the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test. Here, we report the findings of a U.K.-based case-control study to investigate circulating IGFs and IGFBPs in PSA-detected prostate cancer with regard to their potential associations with different cancer stages or grades. PSA testing was offered to 110,000 men aged 50 to 69 years from 2002 to 2009. Participants with an elevated level of PSA (≥3.0 ng/mL) underwent prostate biopsy and measurements of blood serum IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3 obtained at recruitment. We found that serum levels of IGF-II (OR per SD increase: 1.16; 95% CI: 1.08-1.24; P(trend) < 0.001), IGFBP-2 (1.18; 1.06-1.31; P(trend) < 0.01) and IGFBP-3 (1.27; 1.19-1.36; P(trend) < 0.001), but not IGF-I (0.99; 0.93-1.04; P(trend) = 0.62), were associated with PSA-detected prostate cancer. After controlling for IGFBP-3, IGF-II was no longer associated (0.99; 0.91-1.08; P(trend) = 0.62) and IGF-I was inversely associated (0.85; 0.79-0.91; P(trend) < 0.001) with prostate cancer. In addition, no strong associations existed with cancer stage or grade. Overall, these findings suggest potentially important roles for circulating IGF-II, IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3 in PSA-detected prostate cancer, in support of recent in vitro evidence. Although our findings for IGF-I agree with previous results from PSA screening trials, they contrast with positive associations in routinely detected disease, suggesting that reducing levels of circulating IGF-I might not prevent the initiation of prostate cancer but might, nonetheless, prevent its progression.


Asunto(s)
Proteínas de Unión a Factor de Crecimiento Similar a la Insulina/metabolismo , Antígeno Prostático Específico/sangre , Neoplasias de la Próstata/sangre , Somatomedinas/metabolismo , Anciano , Estudios de Casos y Controles , Estudios Transversales , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Neoplasias de la Próstata/diagnóstico , Factores de Riesgo
11.
Int J Mol Epidemiol Genet ; 1(4): 248-71, 2010 Jul 25.
Artículo en Inglés | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21532839

RESUMEN

There is substantial evidence implicating environmental factors in the progression of prostate cancer. The metabolic consequences of a western lifestyle, such as obesity, insulin resistance and abnormal hormone production have been linked to prostate carcinogenesis through multiple overlapping pathways. Insulin resistance results in raised levels of the mitogens insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1, both of which may affect prostate cancer directly, or through their effect on other metabolic regulators. Obesity is associated with abnormal levels of adipocyte-derived peptides (adipokines), sex hormones and inflammatory cytokines. Adipokines have been shown to influence prostate cancer in both cell culture studies and observational, population level studies. Testosterone appears to have a complex relationship with prostate carcinogenesis, and it has been suggested that the lower levels associated with obesity may select for more aggressive androgen independent prostate cancer cells. Prostatic inflammation, caused by infection, urinary reflux or dietary toxins, frequently occurs prior to cancer development and may influence progression to advanced disease. High levels of ω-6 fatty acids in the diet may lead to the production of further inflammatory molecules that may influence prostate cancer. Increased fatty acid metabolism occurs within tumour cells, providing a potential target for prostate cancer therapies. Aberrations in amino acid metabolism have also been identified in prostate cancer tissue, particularly in metastatic cancer. This evidence indicates lifestyle interventions may be effective in reducing the incidence of clinical disease. However, much more research is needed before recommendations are made.

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