Immunoglobulin genes of the turtles.

The availability of reptile genomes for the use of the scientific community is an exceptional opportunity to study the evolution of immunoglobulin genes. The genome of Chrysemys picta bellii and Pelodiscus sinensis is the first one that has been reported for turtles. The scanning for immunoglobulin genes resulted in the presence of a complex locus for the immunoglobulin heavy chain (IGH). This IGH locus in both turtles contains genes for 13 isotypes in C. picta bellii and 17 in P. sinensis. These correspond with one immunoglobulin M, one immunoglobulin D, several immunoglobulins Y (six in C. picta bellii and eight in P. sinensis), and several immunoglobulins that are similar to immunoglobulin D2 (five in C. picta belli and seven in P. sinensis) that was previously described in Eublepharis macularius. It is worthy to note that IGHD2 are placed in an inverted transcriptional orientation and present sequences for two immunoglobulin domains that are similar to bird IgA domains. Furthermore, its phylogenetic analysis allows us to consider about the presence of IGHA gene in a primitive reptile, so we would be dealing with the memory of the gene that originated from the bird IGHA. In summary, we provide a clear picture of the immunoglobulins present in a turtle, whose analysis supports the idea that turtles emerged from the evolutionary line from the differentiation of birds and the presence of the IGHA gene present in a common ancestor.

IgH loci of American alligator and saltwater crocodile shed light on IgA evolution.

Immunoglobulin loci of two representatives of the order Crocodylia were studied from full genome sequences. Both Alligator mississippiensis and Crocodylus porosus have 13 genes for the heavy chain constant regions of immunoglobulins. The IGHC locus contains genes encoding four immunoglobulins M (IgM), one immunoglobulin D (IgD), three immunoglobulins A (IgA), three immunoglobulins Y (IgY), and two immunoglobulins D2 (IgD2). IgA and IgD2 genes were found in reverse transcriptional orientation compared to the other Ig genes. The IGHD gene contains 11 exons, four of which containing stop codons or sequence alterations. As described in other reptiles, the IgD2 is a chimeric Ig with IgA- and IgD-related domains. This work clarifies the origin of bird IgA and its evolutionary relationship with amphibian immunoglobulin X (IgX) as well as their links with mammalian IgA.

Immunoglobulin light chains in medaka (Oryzias latipes).

The gene segments encoding antibodies have been studied in many capacities and represent some of the best-characterized gene families in traditional animal disease models (mice and humans). To date, multiple immunoglobulin light chain (IgL) isotypes have been found in vertebrates and it is unclear as to which isotypes might be more primordial in nature. Sequence data emerging from an array of fish genome projects is a valuable resource for discerning complex multigene assemblages in this critical branch point of vertebrate phylogeny. Herein, we have analyzed the genomic organization of medaka (Oryzias latipes) IgL gene segments based on recently released genome data. The medaka IgL locus located on chromosome 11 contains at least three clusters of IgL gene segments comprised of multiple gene assemblages of the kappa light chain isotype. These data suggest that medaka IgL gene segments may undergo both intra- and inter-cluster rearrangements as a means to generate additional diversity. Alignments of expressed sequence tags to concordant gene segments which revealed each of the three IgL clusters are expressed. Collectively, these data provide a genomic framework for IgL genes in medaka and indicate that Ig diversity in this species is achieved from at least three distinct chromosomal regions.

An automated algorithm for extracting functional immunologic V-genes from genomes in jawed vertebrates.

Variable (V) domains of immunoglobulins (Ig) and T cell receptors (TCR) are generated from genomic V gene segments (V-genes). At present, such V-genes have been annotated only within the genome of a few species. We have developed a bioinformatics tool that accelerates the task of identifying functional V-genes from genome datasets. Automated recognition is accomplished by recognizing key V-gene signatures, such as recombination signal sequences, size of the exon region, and position of amino acid motifs within the translated exon. This algorithm also classifies extracted V-genes into either TCR or Ig loci. We describe the implementation of the algorithm and validate its accuracy by comparing V-genes identified from the human and mouse genomes with known V-gene annotations documented and available in public repositories. The advantages and utility of the algorithm are illustrated by using it to identify functional V-genes in the rat genome, where V-gene annotation is still incomplete. This allowed us to perform a comparative human-rodent phylogenetic analysis based on V-genes that supports the hypothesis that distinct evolutionary pressures shape the TCRs and Igs V-gene repertoires. Our program, together with a user graphical interface, is available as open-source software, downloadable at http://code.google.com/p/vgenextract/.

Immunoglobulin heavy chains in medaka (Oryzias latipes).

BACKGROUND: Bony fish present an immunological system, which evolved independently from those of animals that migrated to land 400 million years ago. The publication of whole genome sequences and the availability of several cDNA libraries for medaka (Oryzias latipes) permitted us to perform a thorough analysis of immunoglobulin heavy chains present in this teleost. RESULTS: We identified IgM and IgD coding ESTs, mainly in spleen, kidney and gills using published cDNA libraries but we did not find any sequence that coded for IgT or other heavy chain isotypes described in fish. The IgM - ESTs corresponded with the secreted and membrane forms and surprisingly, the latter form only presented two constant heavy chain domains. This is the first time that this short form of membrane IgM is described in a teleost. It is different from that identified in Notothenioid teleost because it does not present the typical splicing pattern of membrane IgM. The identified IgD-ESTs only present membrane transcripts, with Cµ1 and five Cδ exons. Furthermore, there are ESTs with sequences that do not have any VH which disrupt open reading frames. A scan of the medaka genome using transcripts and genomic short reads resulted in five zones within a region on chromosome 8 with Cµ and Cδ exons. Some of these exons do not form part of antibodies and were at times interspersed, suggesting a recombination process between zones. An analysis of the ESTs confirmed that no antibodies are expressed from zone 3. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the IGH locus duplication is very common among teleosts, wherein the existence of a recombination process explains the sequence homology between them.

Galectin-1 synthesis in type 1 diabetes by different immune cell types: reduced synthesis by monocytes and Th1 cells.

Galectins are a group of ß-galactoside-binding mammalian lectins that play important roles in the regulation of the immune response by promoting T cell tolerance, blunting Th1 and Th17 responses and suppressing autoimmune inflammation. However, the synthesis of these molecules by different T helper (Th) subsets and in the context of human type 1 diabetes (T1D) has not yet been studied. Our results show that Th17 polarising conditions induce the synthesis of higher levels of galectin-1 compared to Th1-polarised lymphocytes. In the context of human diabetes, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from T1D patients, either unstimulated or after stimulation, secreted significantly lower amounts of galectin-1 in vitro compared to healthy donors. The reduced galectin-1 synthesis observed in this autoimmune disease occurs in a dominant pro-inflammatory cytokine milieu and it is mainly due to the lower synthesis by monocytes. Surprisingly, CD4(+) T helper cells from these patients secreted similar levels of galectin-1 compared to healthy donors, probably mediated by Th17 cytokines. In conclusion, CD4(+) T helper lymphocytes from T1D patients produce normal levels of the immunoregulator galectin-1 but its reduced synthesis by monocytes helps to maintain a skewed pro-inflammatory response.

Design and Development of Antibody Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications.

Antibody-functionalized gold nanoparticle constitutes a powerful interface biosystem for biomedical applications where the properties of gold nanoparticles and the specificity of antibody-antigen interactions are combined. This study provides insight into the key factors for the development of antibody functionalized gold nanoparticles focusing on the immobilization of the antibody. Here, we address an oriented antibody immobilization procedure on gold nanoparticles. It comprises chelatemodified gold nanoparticles that are designed for oriented immobilization of IgG antibodies (end on spatial orientation) through the metal-chelation to histidine-rich metal binding site in the heavy chain (Fc) of the antibody.

Sterilization matters: consequences of different sterilization techniques on gold nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles (NPs) can offer many advantages over traditional drug design and delivery, as well as toward medical diagnostics. As with any medical device or pharmaceutical drug intended to be used for in vivo biomedical applications, NPs must be sterile. However, very little is known regarding the effect of sterilization methods on the intrinsic properties and stability of NPs. Herein a detailed analysis of physicochemical properties of two types of AuNPs upon sterilization by means of five different techniques is reported. In addition, cell viability and production of reactive oxygen species are studied. The results indicate that sterilization by ethylene oxide seems to be the most appropriate technique for both types of NPs. It is concluded that it is crucial to test several methods in order to establish the specific type of sterilization to be performed for each particular NP.

Rapid identification and quantification of tumor cells using an electrocatalytic method based on gold nanoparticles.

There is a high demand for simple, rapid, efficient, and user-friendly alternative methods for the detection of cells in general and, in particular, for the detection of cancer cells. A biosensor able to detect cells would be an all-in-one dream device for such applications. The successful integration of nanoparticles into cell detection assays could allow for the development of this novel class of cell sensors. Indeed, their application could well have a great future in diagnostics, as well as other fields. As an example of a novel biosensor, we report here an electrocatalytic device for the specific identification of tumor cells that quantifies gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) coupled with an electrotransducing platform/sensor. Proliferation and adherence of tumor cells are achieved on the electrotransducer/detector, which consists of a mass-produced screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). In situ identification/quantification of tumor cells is achieved with a detection limit of 4000 cells per 700 microL of suspension. This novel and selective cell-sensing device is based on the reaction of cell surface proteins with specific antibodies conjugated with AuNPs. Final detection requires only a couple of minutes, taking advantage of the catalytic properties of AuNPs on hydrogen evolution. The proposed detection method does not require the chemical agents used in most existing assays for the detection of AuNPs. It allows for the miniaturization of the system and is much cheaper than other expensive and sophisticated methods used for tumor cell detection. We envisage that this device could operate in a simple way as an immunosensor or DNA sensor. Moreover, it could be used, even by inexperienced staff, for the detection of protein molecules or DNA strands.

Assessing methods for blood cell cytotoxic responses to inorganic nanoparticles and nanoparticle aggregates.

Inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) show great potential for medicinal therapy. However, biocompatibility studies are essential to determine if they are safe. Here, five different NPs are compared for their cytotoxicity, internalization, aggregation in medium, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, using tumoral and normal human blood cells. Differences depending on the cell type are analyzed, and no direct correlation between ROS production and cell toxicity is found. Results are discussed with the aim of standardizing the procedures for the evaluation of the toxicity.

Genomic structure and expression of immunoglobulins in Squamata.

The Squamata order represents a major evolutionary reptile lineage, yet the structure and expression of immunoglobulins in this order has been scarcely studied in detail. From the genome sequences of four Squamata species (Gekko japonicus, Ophisaurus gracilis, Pogona vitticeps and Ophiophagus hannah) and RNA-seq datasets from 18 other Squamata species, we identified the immunoglobulins present in these animals as well as the tissues in which they are found. All Squamata have at least three immunoglobulin classes; namely, the immunoglobulins M, D, and Y. Unlike mammals, however, we provide evidence that some Squamata lineages possess more than one Cµ gene which is located downstream from the Cδ gene. The existence of two evolutionary lineages of immunoglobulin Y is shown. Additionally, it is demonstrated that while all Squamata species possess the λ light chain, only Iguanidae species possess the κ light chain.

In situ nanofabrication of hybrid PEG-dendritic-inorganic nanoparticles and preliminary evaluation of their biocompatibility.

An in situ template fabrication of inorganic nanoparticles using carboxylated PEG-dendritic block copolymers of the GATG family is described as a function of the dendritic block generation, the metal (Au, CdSe) and metal molar ratio. The biocompatibility of the generated nanoparticles analysed in terms of their aggregation in physiological media, cytotoxicity and uptake by macrophages relates to the PEG density of the surface of the hybrids.

Snakes antibodies.

Immunoglobulins are basic molecules of the immune system of vertebrates. In previous studies we described the immunoglobulins found in two squamata reptiles, Anolis carolinensis and Eublepharis macularius. Snakes are squamata reptiles too but they have undergone an extreme evolutionary process. We therefore wanted to know how these changes affected their immunoglobulin coding genes. To perform this analysis we studied five snake transcriptomes and two genome draft sequences. Sequences coding for immunoglobulin M (IgM), immunoglobulin D (IgD) and two classes of immunoglobulin Y (IgY - named IgYa and IgYb-) were found in all of them. Moreover, the Thamnophis elegans transcriptome and Python molurus genome draft sequences showed a third class of IgY, the IgYc, whose constant region only presents three domains and lacks the CH2. All data suggest that the IgYb is the evolutionary origin of this IgYc. An exhaustive search of the light chains were carried out, being lambda the only light chain found in snakes. The results provide a clear picture of the immunoglobulins present in the suborder Serpentes.

Presence of an unique IgT on the IGH locus in three-spined stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and the very recent generation of a repertoire of VH genes.

This study describes the IGH locus in Gasterosteus aculeatus, with 10 genes encoding three immunoglobulin classes: IgT, IgM and IgD. These genes are organized into a structure with three repeats of IGHT-IGHM-IGHD separated by segments including the VH segments. There was also a fourth IGHT gene. IGHT encodes an antibody with three immunoglobulin domains. Comparative studies indicate it is related to IgT and IgZ and other antibodies located upstream of the IGHM in teleost fish. The IGHM and IGHD are similar to the ones described in teleost. The IGHM has four immunoglobulin domains while the IGHD seven and none is duplicated. The IGH locus of G. aculeatus has 49 VH segments located in four regions. They belonged to four families, whose members show a greater than 92% amino acid identity, indicating that VH families diversified recently. Phylogenetic reconstruction suggests they were originated from four VH segments that must have duplicated with the constant region genes, after that the four VH segments gave rise to the remaining segments. This suggests the presence of an active biological process that generates diversity in VH regions.

Gold nanoparticle-based electrochemical magnetoimmunosensor for rapid detection of anti-hepatitis B virus antibodies in human serum.

A sandwich immunoassay using magnetic beads as bioreaction platforms and AuNPs as electroactive labels for the electrochemical detection of human IgG antibodies anti-Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), is here presented as an alternative to the standard methods used in hospitals for the detection of human antibodies directed against HBsAg (such as ELISA or MEIA). The electrochemical detection of AuNPs is carried out approaching their catalytic properties towards the hydrogen evolution in an acidic medium, without previous nanoparticle dissolution. The obtained results are a good promise toward the development of a fully integrated biosensing set-up. The developed technology based on this detection mode would be simple to use, low cost and integrated into a portable instrumentation that may allow its application even at doctor-office. The sample volumes required can be lower than those used in the traditional methods. This may lead to several other applications with interest for clinical control.

The immunoglobulin heavy chain locus in the reptile Anolis carolinensis.

We describe the entire immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) locus from the reptile Anolis carolinensis. The heavy chain constant (C(H)) region includes C mu, C delta and C upsilon genes. This is the first description of a C upsilon gene in the reptilian class. Variable (V(H)), diversity (D(H)) and joining (J(H)) genes are located 5' from the constant (C(H)) chain complex locus. The C mu and C upsilon genes encode antibodies with four immunoglobulin domains. The C delta gene encoded an 11 domain delta heavy chain as in Eublepharis macularius. Seventy V(H) genes, belonging to 28 families, were identified, and they can be sorted into five broader groups. The similarity of the organization of the reptilian genes with those of amphibians and mammals suggests the existence of a process of heavy chain genomic reorganization before the radiation of tetrapod vertebrates.