Clinical next-generation sequencing in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.

BACKGROUND: A clinical assay was implemented to perform next-generation sequencing (NGS) of genes commonly mutated in multiple cancer types. This report describes the feasibility and diagnostic yield of this assay in 381 consecutive patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). METHODS: Clinical targeted sequencing of 23 genes was performed with DNA from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tumor tissue. The assay used Agilent SureSelect hybrid capture followed by Illumina HiSeq 2000, MiSeq, or HiSeq 2500 sequencing in a College of American Pathologists-accredited, Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments-certified laboratory. Single-nucleotide variants and insertion/deletion events were reported. This assay was performed before methods were developed to detect rearrangements by NGS. RESULTS: Two hundred nine of all requisitioned samples (55%) were successfully sequenced. The most common reason for not performing the sequencing was an insufficient quantity of tissue available in the blocks (29%). Excisional, endoscopic, and core biopsy specimens were sufficient for testing in 95%, 66%, and 40% of the cases, respectively. The median turnaround time (TAT) in the pathology laboratory was 21 days, and there was a trend of an improved TAT with more rapid sequencing platforms. Sequencing yielded a mean coverage of 1318×. Potentially actionable mutations (ie, predictive or prognostic) were identified in 46% of 209 samples and were most commonly found in KRAS (28%), epidermal growth factor receptor (14%), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (4%), phosphatase and tensin homolog (1%), and BRAF (1%). Five percent of the samples had multiple actionable mutations. A targeted therapy was instituted on the basis of NGS in 11% of the sequenced patients or in 6% of all patients. CONCLUSIONS: NGS-based diagnostics are feasible in NSCLC and provide clinically relevant information from readily available FFPE tissue. The sample type is associated with the probability of successful testing.

The novel benzopyran class of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors-part I: the first clinical candidate.

In this manuscript, we report the discovery of the substituted 2-trifluoromethyl-2H-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acids as a novel series of potent and selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. 5c-(S) (SD-8381) was advanced into clinical studies due to its superior in vivo potency. The high plasma protein binding (>99% bound) of 5c-(S) has resulted in a surprisingly long human half life t(1/2)=360 h.

Evaluation of COX-1/COX-2 selectivity and potency of a new class of COX-2 inhibitors.

A new class of selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors has been identified by high throughput screening. Structurally distinct from previously described selective COX-2 inhibitors, these benzopyrans contain a carboxylic acid function and CF3 functionality. The compound SC-75,416 is a representative of this class. A range if in vitro and in vivo tests were employed to characterize its potency and selectivity. Using human recombinant enzymes, this compound displays a concentration that provides 50% inhibition (IC50) of 0.25 microM for COX-2 and 49.6 microM for COX-1. A mutation of the side pocket residues in COX-2 to COX-1 had little effect on potency suggesting that these inhibitors bind in a unique manner in COX-2 distinct from COX-2 inhibiting diaryl heterocycles. Using rheumatoid arthritic synovial cells stimulated with interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and washed platelets the compound displayed IC50 of 3 nM and 400 nM respectively. Potency and selectivity was maintained but predictably right shifted in whole blood with IC50 of 1.4 microM for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated induction of COX-2 and >200 microM for inhibition of platelet thromboxane production. SC-75,416 is 89% bioavailable and its in vivo half life is sufficient for once a day dosing. In the rat air pouch model of inflammation, the compound inhibited PGE2 production with an effective dose that provides 50% inhibition (ED50) of 0.4 mg/kg, while sparing gastric prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production with an ED50 of 26.5 mg/kg. In a model of acute inflammation and pain caused by carrageenan injection into the rat paw, the compound reduced edema and hyperalgesia with ED50s of 2.7 and 4 mg/kg respectively. In a chronic model of arthritis the compound demonstrated an ED50 of 0.081 mg/kg and an ED(80) of 0.38 mg/kg. In a model of neuropathic pain, SC-75,416 had good efficacy. This compound's unique chemical structure and effect on COX enzyme binding and activity as well as its potency and selectivity may prove useful in treating pain and inflammation.

Differential inhibition of fracture healing by non-selective and cyclooxygenase-2 selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) specifically inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX) activity and are widely used as anti-arthritics, post-surgical analgesics, and for the relief of acute musculoskeletal pain. Recent studies suggest that non-specific NSAIDs, which inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2 isoforms, delay bone healing. The objectives of this study were 2-fold; first, to measure the relative changes in the normal expression of COX-1 and COX-2 mRNAs over a 42 day period of fracture healing and second, to compare the effects of a commonly used non-specific NSAID, ketorolac, with a COX-2 specific NSAID, Parecoxib (a pro-drug of valdecoxib), on this process. Simple, closed, transverse fractures were generated in femora of male Sprague-Dawley rats weighing approximately 450 g each. Total RNA was prepared from the calluses obtained prior to fracture and at 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, 21, 35 and 42 days post-fracture and levels of COX-1 and COX-2 mRNA were measured using real time PCR. While the relative levels of COX-1 mRNA remained constant over a 21-day period, COX-2 mRNA levels showed peak expression during the first 14 days of healing and returned to basal levels by day 21. Mechanical properties of the calluses were then assessed at 21 and 35 days post-fracture in untreated animals and animals treated with either ketorolac or high or low dose parecoxib. At both 21 and 35 days after fracture, calluses in the group treated with the ketorolac showed a significant reduction in mechanical strength and stiffness when compared with controls (p<0.05). At the 21-day time point, calluses of the parecoxib treated animals showed a lower mean mechanical strength than controls, but the inhibition was not statistically significant. Based on physical analysis of the bones, 3 of 12 (25%) of the ketorolac-treated and 1 of 12 (8%) of the high dose parecoxib-treated animals showed failure to unite their fractures by 21 days, while all fractures in both groups showed union by 35 days. Histological analysis at 21 days showed that the calluses in the ketorolac-treated group contained substantial amounts of residual cartilage while neither the control nor the parecoxib-treated animals showed comparable amounts of cartilage at this stage. These results demonstrate that ketorolac and parecoxib delay fracture healing in this model, but in this study daily administration of ketorolac, a non-selective COX inhibitor had a greater affect on this process. They further demonstrate that a COX-2 selective NSAID, such as parecoxib (valdecoxib), has only a small effect on delaying fracture healing even at doses that are known to fully inhibit prostaglandin production.

The Role of Cyclooxygenase-2 in Inflammation.

Prostaglandins (PGs) can be synthetized via two isoforms of cyclooxygenase (COX). COX-1 is constitutively expressed in normal tissues, and its activity represent the normal physiological output of PGs. In inflammatory states, the newly discovered COX-2 is rapidly induced, and its activity accounts for the large amounts of PGs seen in inflammation. The commercially available nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are nonselective inhibitors of both COX isoforms; therefore, they provide anti-inflammatory activity as well as side effects associated with COX-1 inhibition. Selective inhibition of COX-2 expression explains at least in part the potent anti-inflammatory activity of steroids. Anti-inflammatory activity of newly developed COX-2 inhibitors, such as NS-398 or SC-58125, suggest a new approach of inflammatory diseases with more efficacious NSAIDs essentially devoid of side effects such as stomach ulcers.

Cyclooxygenase-2 in human pathological disease.

To understand the potential role of cyclooxygenase (COX) in normal and inflammatory human diseases, we characterized the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 in biopsies of osteoarthritis, atherosclerosis, and cancer. Tissues were prepared for immunohistochemistry by standard methods, and representative cases assayed via Western blot and quantitative RT-PCR. COX-2 was not detected in normal human tissues with few exceptions. Moderate to marked COX-2 was observed in the macula densa (MD) and thick ascending limb (TAL) in human fetal kidneys, but was not detected in neonatal and adult MD and TALs. Low level, constitutive COX-2 was detected in colonic epithelium, peribronchial glands, and pancreatic ductal epithelium. Low to moderate COX-2 was detected basally in the cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and spinal cord, and in reproductive tissues during ovulation, implantation and labor. No COX-2 was detected in the existing vasculature in normal tissues, and was also not expressed throughout the ductus arteriosus. COX-2 was markedly induced in human tissues of osteoarthritis, atherosclerosis and cancer. COX-2 was prominently expressed in the synovium, fibrocartilage of osteophytes, and in the blood vessels in the osteoarthritic (OA) knee joint. COX-2 was also prominently detected in the macrophages/foam cells in atherosclerotic plaques, and in the endothelium overlying and immediately adjacent to the fibrofatty lesion. Moderate- to intense COX-2 expression was consistently observed in the inflammatory cells, neoplastic lesions, and blood vessels in all epithelial-derived human cancers studied. In contrast, COX-1 was relatively ubiquitously observed in both normal and pathophysiological conditions. These data collectively imply COX-2 plays an important role in mediating a variety of inflammatory diseases, and imply COX-2 inhibitors may be effective in the prevention and/or treatment of OA, heart disease, and epithelial cancers.

Cloning, expression, and selective inhibition of canine cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2.

Cyclooxygenase (COX) performs the critical initial reaction in the arachidonic metabolic cascade, leading to formation of proinflammatory prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and prostacyclins. The discovery of a second COX isoform (COX-2) associated with inflammation led to agents that selectively inhibit COX-2. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors are also being developed for canine applications. To assess the compound potency on canine enzymes, canine COX-1 and COX-2 were cloned, expressed, and purified. Cyclooxygenase-1 was cloned from a canine kidney complementary DNA (cDNA) library, with 96 % sequence homology to human COX-1. Cyclooxygenase-2 was cloned from canine kidney and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage cDNA libraries, with a 93 % sequence homology to human COX-2. The arachidonic acid Michaelis constants for canine COX-1 and COX-2 were 4.8 and 6.6 micrometer, respectively, compared with 9.6 and 10.2 micrometer for ovine. Inhibition results indicated that, for all compounds tested, there was no significant difference between potencies determined for canine enzymes and those for human enzymes.

Validation of a next-generation sequencing assay for clinical molecular oncology.

Currently, oncology testing includes molecular studies and cytogenetic analysis to detect genetic aberrations of clinical significance. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) allows rapid analysis of multiple genes for clinically actionable somatic variants. The WUCaMP assay uses targeted capture for NGS analysis of 25 cancer-associated genes to detect mutations at actionable loci. We present clinical validation of the assay and a detailed framework for design and validation of similar clinical assays. Deep sequencing of 78 tumor specimens (≥ 1000× average unique coverage across the capture region) achieved high sensitivity for detecting somatic variants at low allele fraction (AF). Validation revealed sensitivities and specificities of 100% for detection of single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) within coding regions, compared with SNP array sequence data (95% CI = 83.4-100.0 for sensitivity and 94.2-100.0 for specificity) or whole-genome sequencing (95% CI = 89.1-100.0 for sensitivity and 99.9-100.0 for specificity) of HapMap samples. Sensitivity for detecting variants at an observed 10% AF was 100% (95% CI = 93.2-100.0) in HapMap mixes. Analysis of 15 masked specimens harboring clinically reported variants yielded concordant calls for 13/13 variants at AF of ≥ 15%. The WUCaMP assay is a robust and sensitive method to detect somatic variants of clinical significance in molecular oncology laboratories, with reduced time and cost of genetic analysis allowing for strategic patient management.

Clinical genomicist workstation.

The use of NextGen Sequencing clinically necessitates the need for informatics tools that support the complete workflow from sample accessioning to data analysis and reporting. To address this need we have developed Clinical Genomicist Workstation (CGW). CGW is a secure, n-tiered application where web browser submits requests to application servers that persist the data in a relational database. CGW is used by Washington University Genomic and Pathology Services for clinical genomic testing of many cancers. CGW has been used to accession, analyze and sign out over 409 cases since November, 2011. There are 22 ordering oncologists and 7 clinical genomicists that use the CGW. In summary, CGW a 'soup-to-nuts' solution to track, analyze, interpret, and report clinical genomic diagnostic tests.

Valdecoxib: assessment of cyclooxygenase-2 potency and selectivity.

The discovery of a second isoform of cyclooxygenase (COX) led to the search for compounds that could selectively inhibit COX-2 in humans while sparing prostaglandin formation from COX-1. Celecoxib and rofecoxib were among the molecules developed from these efforts. We report here the pharmacological properties of a third selective COX-2 inhibitor, valdecoxib, which is the most potent and in vitro selective of the marketed COX-2 inhibitors that we have studied. Recombinant human COX-1 and COX-2 were used to screen for new highly potent and in vitro selective COX-2 inhibitors and compare kinetic mechanisms of binding and enzyme inhibition with other COX inhibitors. Valdecoxib potently inhibits recombinant COX-2, with an IC(50) of 0.005 microM; this compares with IC values of 0.05 microM for celecoxib, 0.5 microM for rofecoxib, and 5 microM for etoricoxib. Unique binding interactions of valdecoxib with COX-2 translate into a fast rate of inactivation of COX-2 (110,000 M/s compared with 7000 M/s for rofecoxib and 80 M/s for etoricoxib). The overall saturation binding affinity for COX-2 of valdecoxib is 2.6 nM (compared with 1.6 nM for celecoxib, 51 nM for rofecoxib, and 260 nM for etoricoxib), with a slow off-rate (t(1/2) approximately 98 min). Valdecoxib inhibits COX-1 in a competitive fashion only at very high concentrations (IC(50) = 150 microM). Collectively, these data provide a mechanistic basis for the potency and in vitro selectivity of valdecoxib for COX-2. Valdecoxib showed similar activity in the human whole-blood COX assay (COX-2 IC(50) = 0.24 microM; COX-1 IC(50) = 21.9 microM). We also determined whether this in vitro potency and selectivity translated to significant potency in vivo. In rats, valdecoxib demonstrated marked potency in acute and chronic models of inflammation (air pouch ED(50) = 0.06 mg/kg; paw edema ED(50) = 5.9 mg/kg; adjuvant arthritis ED(50) = 0.03 mg/kg). In these same animals, COX-1 was spared at doses greater than 200 mg/kg. These data provide a basis for the observed potent anti-inflammatory activity of valdecoxib in humans.

Characterization of celecoxib and valdecoxib binding to cyclooxygenase.

Two compounds (celecoxib and valdecoxib) from the diarylheterocycle class of cyclooxygenase inhibitors were radiolabeled and used to characterize their binding to cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), several single-point variants of COX-2 (Val523Ile, Tyr355Ala, Arg120Ala, Arg120Gln, Arg120Asn) and one triple-point variant of COX-2 [Val523Ile, Arg513His, Val434Ile (IHI)]. We demonstrate highly specific and saturable binding of these inhibitors to COX-2. Under the same assay conditions, little or no specific binding to COX-1 could be detected. The affinity of [(3)H]celecoxib for COX-2 (K(D) = 2.3 nM) was similar to the affinity of [(3)H]valdecoxib (K(D) = 3.2 nM). The binding to COX-2 seems to be both rapid and slowly reversible with association rates of 5.8 x 10(6)/M/min and 4.5 x 10(6)/M/min and dissociation rates of 14 x 10(-3)/min (t(1/2) = 50 min) and 7.0 x 10(-3)/min (t(1/2) = 98 min) for [(3)H]celecoxib and [(3)H]valdecoxib, respectively. These association rates increased (4- to 11-fold) when the charged arginine residue located at the entrance to the main hydrophobic channel was mutated to smaller uncharged amino acids (Arg120Ala, Arg120Gln, and Arg120Asn). Mutation of residues located within the active site of COX-2 that define a 'side pocket' (Tyr355Ala, Val523Ile, IHI) of the main channel had a greater effect on the dissociation rate than the association rate. These mutations, which modified the shape of and access to the 'side pocket', affected the binding affinity of [(3)H]valdecoxib more than that of [(3)H]celecoxib. These binding studies provide direct insight into the properties and binding constants of celecoxib and valdecoxib to COX-2.

Pharmacology of celecoxib in rat brain after kainate administration.

Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) is the major prostaglandin produced both centrally and in the periphery in models of acute and chronic inflammation, and its formation in both locations is blocked by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors such as celecoxib. In animal models of inflammation, PGE(2) inhibition in the brain may occur secondarily to a peripheral action by inhibiting local PG formation that elicits increased firing of pain fibers and consequent activation of PG synthesis in the central nervous system (CNS). Celecoxib was studied in the kainate-induced seizure model in the rat, a model of direct central prostaglandin induction, to determine whether it can act directly in the CNS. In the kainate-treated rat brain there was increased PGE(2), PGF(2alpha), and PGD(2) production, with COX activity and PGE(2) formation increased about 7-fold over normal. We quantitated mRNA levels for enzymes involved in the prostaglandin biosynthetic pathways and found that both COX-2 and PGE synthase (PGEs) mRNA levels were increased in the brain; no changes were found for expression of COX-1 or PGD synthase mRNA. By Western blot analysis, COX-2 and PGEs were induced in total brain, hippocampus, and cortex, but not in the spinal cord. Immunohistological studies showed that COX-2 protein expression was enhanced in neurons. Dexamethasone treatment reduced the expression of both COX-2 and PGEs in kainate-treated animals. Celecoxib reduced the elevated PGE(2) levels in brain of kainate-treated rats and inhibited induced COX activity, demonstrating the ability of this compound to act on COX-2 in CNS. Doses of celecoxib that inhibited brain COX-2 were lower than those needed for anti-inflammatory activity in adjuvant arthritis, demonstrating a potent direct central action of the compound.

Cyclooxygenase 2-dependent prostaglandin E2 modulates cartilage proteoglycan degradation in human osteoarthritis explants.

OBJECTIVE: To examine cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme expression, its regulation by interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), and the role of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) in proteoglycan degradation in human osteoarthritic (OA) cartilage. METHODS: Samples of human OA articular cartilage, meniscus, synovial membrane, and osteophytic fibrocartilage were obtained at knee arthroplasty and cultured ex vivo with or without IL-1 beta and COX inhibitors. COX expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. The enzymatic activity of COX was measured by conversion of arachidonic acid to PGE(2). Cartilage degradation was evaluated by measuring the accumulation of sulfated glycosaminoglycans in the medium. RESULTS: IL-1 beta induced robust expression of COX-2 and PGE(2) in OA meniscus, synovial membrane, and osteophytic fibrocartilage explants, whereas low levels were produced in OA articular cartilage. IL-1 beta also induced cartilage proteoglycan degradation in OA synovial membrane-cartilage cocultures. Increased proteoglycan degradation corresponded to the induction of COX-2 protein expression in, and PGE(2) production from, the synovial membrane. Dexamethasone, neutralizing IL-1 beta antibody, or the selective COX-2 inhibitor, SC-236, attenuated both the IL-1 beta-induced PGE(2) production and cartilage proteoglycan degradation in these cocultures. The addition of PGE(2) reversed the inhibition of proteoglycan degradation caused by SC-236. CONCLUSION: IL-1 beta-induced production of COX-2 protein and PGE(2) was low in OA articular cartilage compared with that in the other OA tissues examined. IL-1 beta-mediated degradation of cartilage proteoglycans in OA synovial membrane-cartilage cocultures was blocked by the selective COX-2 inhibitor, SC-236, and the effect of SC-236 was reversed by the addition of exogenous PGE(2). Our data suggest that induction of synovial COX-2-produced PGE(2) is one mechanism by which IL-1 beta modulates cartilage proteoglycan degradation in OA.