Intraoperative neuromonitoring for pediatric Chiari decompression: when is it useful?

OBJECTIVE: Surgical treatment for symptomatic Chiari I malformation involves surgical decompression of the craniovertebral junction. Given the proximity of critical brainstem structures, intraoperative neuromonitoring (IONM) is employed for safe decompression in some institutions. However, IONM adds time and cost to the operation, and the benefit to the patient has not been defined. Given the diversity in surgical practices, there is no evidence-based standard of care regarding when to use IONM and which modalities are most helpful. The purpose of this study was to review a single-surgeon experience with IONM in order to determine the sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of various IONM modalities routinely used in pediatric Chiari I decompression; to examine the associations between patient, clinical, and radiographic characteristics and IONM alerts; and to obtain data regarding the usefulness of these modalities during the surgical process to improve patient outcomes. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed for 300 consecutive pediatric patients who underwent suboccipital craniectomy and C1 laminectomy for Chiari decompression performed by a single surgeon over a 15-year period. Clinical, radiographic, and IONM data were collected. Radiographic measurements of the skull base morphological abnormalities, including clival angle, Chamberlain's line, and Grabb-Oakes line, were compared between patients with and without true IONM signal changes. RESULTS: A total of 291 cases were included, with an age range of 6 months to 19 years. Among 291 cases, somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) were monitored in 291, motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in 209, cranial nerve spontaneous electromyography (sEMG) in 290, and brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) in 110. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value, respectively, were as follows: 1.00, 1.00, 1.00, and 1.00 for SSEPs; 1.00, 0.99, 0.67, and 1.00 for MEPs; 0.00, 0.88, 0.00, and 1.00 for sEMG; and not appliable, 1.00, not applicable, and 1.00 for BAEPs. Six patients had true IONM signal changes. These patients had radiographic evidence of more severe concomitant craniocervical instability and basilar invagination, with steeper clival angles (124° vs 146°, p = 0.02) and larger Grabb-Oakes lines (10.1 mm vs 6.7 mm, p = 0.02), when compared with the patients without any true IONM changes. CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative neuromonitoring may be best utilized for patients who show radiographic features of abnormal skull base morphology, defined as a clival angle < 135° or Grabb-Oakes line > 9 mm. When IONM is employed, SSEP and MEP monitoring are the most useful modalities.

De novo epilepsy after microsurgical resection of brain arteriovenous malformations.

OBJECTIVE: Seizures are the second most common presenting symptom of brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs) after hemorrhage. Risk factors for preoperative seizures and subsequent seizure control outcomes have been well studied. There is a paucity of literature on postoperative, de novo seizures in initially seizure-naïve patients who undergo resection. Whereas this entity has been documented after craniotomy for a wide variety of neurosurgically treated pathologies including tumors, trauma, and aneurysms, de novo seizures after bAVM resection are poorly studied. Given the debilitating nature of epilepsy, the purpose of this study was to elucidate the incidence and risk factors associated with de novo epilepsy after bAVM resection. METHODS: A retrospective review of patients who underwent resection of a bAVM over a 15-year period was performed. Patients who did not present with seizure were included, and the primary outcome was de novo epilepsy (i.e., a seizure disorder that only manifested after surgery). Demographic, clinical, and radiographic characteristics were compared between patients with and without postoperative epilepsy. Subgroup analysis was conducted on the ruptured bAVMs. RESULTS: From a cohort of 198 patients who underwent resection of a bAVM during the study period, 111 supratentorial ruptured and unruptured bAVMs that did not present with seizure were included. Twenty-one patients (19%) developed de novo epilepsy. One-year cumulative rates of developing de novo epilepsy were 9% for the overall cohort and 8.5% for the cohort with ruptured bAVMs. There were no significant differences between the epilepsy and no-epilepsy groups overall; however, the de novo epilepsy group was younger in the cohort with ruptured bAVMs (28.7 ± 11.7 vs 35.1 ± 19.9 years; p = 0.04). The mean time between resection and first seizure was 26.0 ± 40.4 months, with the longest time being 14 years. Subgroup analysis of the ruptured and endovascular embolization cohorts did not reveal any significant differences. Of the patients who developed poorly controlled epilepsy (defined as Engel class III-IV), all had a history of hemorrhage and half had bAVMs located in the temporal lobe. CONCLUSIONS: De novo epilepsy after bAVM resection occurs at an annual cumulative risk of 9%, with potentially long-term onset. Younger age may be a risk factor in patients who present with rupture. The development of poorly controlled epilepsy may be associated with temporal lobe location and a delay between hemorrhage and resection.

Issues of consent and assent in pediatric neurosurgery.

BACKGROUND: Consent and assent are important concepts to understand in the care of pediatric neurosurgery patients. Recently it has been recommended that although pediatric patients generally do not have the legal capacity to make medical decisions, they be encouraged to be involved in their own care. Given the paucity of information on this topic in the neurosurgery community, the objective is to provide pediatric neurosurgeons with recommendations on how to involve their patients in medical decision-making. METHODS: We review the essential elements and current guidelines of consent and assent for pediatric patients using illustrative neurosurgical case vignettes. RESULTS: The pediatric population ranges widely in cognitive and psychological development making the process of consent and assent quite complex. The role of the child or adolescent in medical decision-making, issues associated with obtaining assent or dissent, and informed refusal of treatment are considered. CONCLUSION: The process of obtaining consent and assent represents a critical yet often overlooked aspect to care of pediatric neurosurgical patients. The pediatric neurosurgeon must be able to distill immensely complex and high-risk procedures into simple, understandable terms. Furthermore, they must recognize when the child's dissent or refusal to treatment is acceptable. In general, allowing children to be involved in their neurosurgical care is empowering and gives them both identity and agency, which is the vital first step to a successful neurosurgical intervention.

Comparison of full-endoscopic and minimally invasive decompression for lumbar spinal stenosis in the setting of degenerative scoliosis and spondylolisthesis.

OBJECTIVEThe management of lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS) with concurrent scoliosis and/or spondylolisthesis remains controversial. Full-endoscopic unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression (ULBD) facilitates neural decompression while preserving stabilizing osseoligamentous structures and may be uniquely suited for the treatment of LSS with concurrent mild to moderate degenerative deformity. The safety and efficacy of full-endoscopic versus minimally invasive surgery (MIS) ULBD in this patient population is studied here for the first time.METHODSA retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data was conducted on 45 consecutive LSS patients with concurrent scoliosis (≥ 10° coronal Cobb angle) and/or spondylolisthesis (≥ 3 mm). Patient demographics, operative details, complications, and imaging characteristics were reviewed. Outcomes were quantified using back and leg visual analog scale (VAS) scores and the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) at 2 weeks, 3 months, and 1 year.RESULTSA total of 26 patients underwent full-endoscopic and 19 underwent MIS-ULBD with an average follow-up period of 12 months. The endoscopic cohort experienced a significantly shorter hospital length of stay (p = 0.014) and fewer adverse events (p = 0.010). Both cohorts experienced significant improvements in VAS and ODI scores at all time points (p < 0.001), but the endoscopic cohort demonstrated significantly better early ODI scores (p = 0.024).CONCLUSIONSEndoscopic and MIS-ULBD result in similar functional outcomes for LSS with mild to moderate deformity, while the endoscopic approach demonstrates a favorable rate of complications. Further studies are required to better delineate the characteristics of spinal deformities amenable to this approach and the durability of functional results.

High-Flow Bypass and Clip Trapping of a Giant Fusiform Middle Cerebral Artery (M1) Aneurysm: Technical Case Instruction.

BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE: Giant intracranial aneurysms have a poor natural history with mortality rates of 68% and 80% over 2-year and 5-year, respectively. Cerebral revascularization can provide flow preservation while treating complex aneurysms requiring parent artery sacrifice. In this report, we describe the microsurgical clip trapping and high-flow bypass revascularization for a giant middle cerebral artery (MCA) aneurysm. CLINICAL PRESENTATION: A 19-year-old man was diagnosed with a giant left MCA aneurysm after he suffered a left hemispheric capsular stroke 6 months ago. Since then, the patient recovered from the right hemiparesis and dysarthria with residual symptoms. Neuroimaging demonstrated a giant fusiform aneurysm encompassing the entire M1 segment. The bilobed aneurysm measured 37 × 16 × 15 mm. Endovascular treatment options included partial coiling of the aneurysm followed by deployment of flow-diverting stent spanning from the M2 branch-through the aneurysm neck-into the internal carotid artery. Because of the high risk of lenticulostriate artery stroke with endovascular treatment, the patient opted for microsurgical clip trapping and bypass. The patient consented to the procedure. High-flow bypass from internal carotid artery to M2 MCA was performed using radial artery graft, followed by aneurysm clip trapping using 3 clips. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate the successful microsurgical treatment for a complex case of giant M1 MCA aneurysm with fusiform morphology. High-flow revascularization using radial artery graft helped in achieving good clinical outcome with complete aneurysm occlusion with flow preservation despite the challenging morphology and location. Cerebral bypass continues to be a useful tool to tackle complex intracranial aneurysms.

Frailty Predicts Postoperative Functional Outcomes After Microsurgical Resection of Ruptured Brain Arteriovenous Malformations in Older Patients.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of the modified Frailty Index-5 (mFI-5) in predicting postoperative functional outcome after microsurgical resection of ruptured brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs). METHODS: A retrospective review was performed of patients undergoing microsurgical resection of acutely ruptured bAVMs. Demographics, bAVM characteristics, mFI-5, Ruptured Arteriovenous Malformation Grading Scale (RAGS) score, and Spetzler-Martin (S-M) grade were recorded. Predictive ability of mFI-5 for postoperative functional outcome measured by modified Rankin Scale (mRS) was assessed with univariate and multivariate logistic and linear regression. RAGS score and S-M grade alone were compared with adding mFI-5 to either RAGS score or S-M grade using area under the curve (AUC) analysis. RESULTS: In total, 109 patients were included. For every 1-point increase in mFI-5, there was a lower likelihood of good functional outcome (mRS score ≤2; odds ratio [OR], 0.33; confidence interval [CI], 0.15-0.60; P = 0.011). Healthy patients (mFI-5 = 0) were more likely to have good postoperative outcomes versus frail patients (mFI-5 ≥1) (OR, 3.32; CI, 1.24-8.97; P = 0.017). In multivariate analysis controlling for RAGS score, for every 1-point mFI-5 increase, there was a decreased likelihood of postoperative good functional outcome (OR, 0.32; CI, 0.14-0.63; P = 0.0026) and mFI-5 did not significantly predict secondary outcomes. S-M grade with mFI-5 showed better discrimination for postoperative good functional outcome (AUC 0.616), compared with S-M grade alone (AUC 0.544). RAGS score with mFI-5 showed the best discrimination for postoperative good functional outcome (AUC 0.798), compared with RAGS score alone (AUC 0.721). CONCLUSIONS: Measuring frailty with mFI-5 additive to established bAVM grading systems may improve assessment of individual patient likelihood of postoperative good functional outcome after hemorrhagic bAVM resection.

Clopidogrel hyper-response increases peripheral hemorrhagic complications without increasing intracranial complications in endovascular aneurysm treatments requiring dual antiplatelet therapy.

Clinical significance of increased clopidogrel response measured by VerifyNow P2Y12 assay is unclear; management guidelines are lacking in the context of neuroendovascular intervention. Our objective was to assess whether increased clopidogrel response predicts complications from endovascular aneurysm treatment requiring dual antiplatelet therapy. A single-institution, 9-year retrospective study of patients undergoing endovascular treatments for ruptured and unruptured aneurysms requiring aspirin and clopidogrel was conducted. Patients were grouped according to preoperative platelet inhibition in response to clopidogrel measured by the VerifyNow P2Y12 assay (VNP; P2Y12 reactivity units, PRU). Demographic and clinical features were compared across groups. Hemorrhagic complication rates (intracranial, major extracranial, minor extracranial) and thromboembolic complications (in-stent stenosis, stroke/transient ischemic attack) were compared, controlling for potential confounders and multiple comparisons. Data were collected from 284 patients across 317 procedures. Pre-operative VNP assays identified 9 % Extreme Responders (PRU ≤ 15), 13 % Hyper-Responders (PRU 16-60), 62 % Therapeutic Responders (PRU 61-214), 16 % Hypo-Responders (PRU ≥ 215). Increased response to clopidogrel was associated with increased risk of any hemorrhagic complication (≤60 PRU vs > 60 PRU; 39 % vs 24 %, P = 0.050); all intracranial hemorrhages occurred in patients with PRU > 60. Thromboembolic complications were similar between therapeutic and subtherapeutic patients (<215 PRU vs ≥ 215 PRU; 15 % vs 16 %, P = 0.835). Increased preoperative clopidogrel response is associated with increased rate of extracranial hemorrhagic complications in endovascular aneurysm treatments. Hyper-responders (16-60 PRU) and Extreme Responders (≤15 PRU) were not associated with intracranial hemorrhagic or thrombotic complications. Hypo-responders who underwent adjustment of antiplatelet therapy and neurointerventions did not experience higher rates of complications.

Concurrent decompression and resection versus decompression with delayed resection of acutely ruptured brain arteriovenous malformations.

OBJECTIVE: Brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs) most commonly present with rupture and intraparenchymal hemorrhage. In rare cases, the hemorrhage is large enough to cause clinical herniation or intractable intracranial hypertension. Patients in these cases require emergent surgical decompression as a life-saving measure. The surgeon must decide whether to perform concurrent or delayed resection of the bAVM. Theoretical benefits to concurrent resection include a favorable operative corridor created by the hematoma, avoiding a second surgery, and more rapid recovery and rehabilitation. The objective of this study was to compare the clinical and surgical outcomes of patients who had undergone concurrent emergent decompression and bAVM resection with those of patients who had undergone delayed bAVM resection. METHODS: The authors conducted a 15-year retrospective review of consecutive patients who had undergone microsurgical resection of a ruptured bAVM at their institution. Patients presenting in clinical herniation or with intractable intracranial hypertension were included and grouped according to the timing of bAVM resection: concurrent with decompression (hyperacute group) or separate resection surgery after decompression (delayed group). Demographic and clinical characteristics were recorded. Groups were compared in terms of the primary outcomes of hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) lengths of stay (LOSs). Secondary outcomes included complete obliteration (CO), Glasgow Coma Scale score, and modified Rankin Scale score at discharge and at the most recent follow-up. RESULTS: A total of 35/269 reviewed patients met study inclusion criteria; 18 underwent concurrent decompression and resection (hyperacute group) and 17 patients underwent emergent decompression only with later resection of the bAVM (delayed group). Hyperacute and delayed groups differed only in the proportion that underwent preresection endovascular embolization (16.7% vs 76.5%, respectively; p < 0.05). There was no significant difference between the hyperacute and delayed groups in hospital LOS (26.1 vs 33.2 days, respectively; p = 0.93) or ICU LOS (10.6 vs 16.1 days, respectively; p = 0.69). Rates of CO were also comparable (78% vs 88%, respectively; p > 0.99). Medical complications were similar in the two groups (33% hyperacute vs 41% delayed, p > 0.99). Short-term clinical outcomes were better for the delayed group based on mRS score at discharge (4.2 vs 3.2, p < 0.05); however, long-term outcomes were similar between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Ruptured bAVM rarely presents in clinical herniation requiring surgical decompression and hematoma evacuation. Concurrent surgical decompression and resection of a ruptured bAVM can be performed on low-grade lesions without compromising LOS or long-term functional outcome; however, the surgeon may encounter a more challenging surgical environment.

Severe, Intolerable Fatigue Associated with Hyperresponse to Clopidogrel.

OBJECTIVE: Clopidogrel is a commonly used antiplatelet agent for the prevention of thromboembolic complications following neuroendovascular procedures, but anecdotal data have raised concern for the possibility that clopidogrel may induce severe, intolerable fatigue. The purpose of this study is to systematically investigate this phenomenon. METHODS: We performed a dual-institution, 9-year, retrospective study of patients undergoing clopidogrel therapy for neuroendovascular procedures. Patients were included only if their response to clopidogrel was assessed by platelet function testing using the VerifyNow P2Y12 (VNP) assay. Hyperresponse to clopidogrel was defined as P2Y12 reaction units ≤60. Patients were considered to have had clopidogrel-induced severe fatigue if the onset of symptoms followed the initiation of clopidogrel therapy; symptoms improved following a reduction in the dose of clopidogrel; and symptoms could not be attributed to any other medical explanation. RESULTS: Data were collected on 349 patients. Five patients (1.4%) met criteria for clopidogrel-induced severe fatigue. All 5 patients were female, ages 39-68. VNP assessments obtained while patients were symptomatic revealed hyperresponse to clopidogrel (0-22 P2Y12 reaction units). Symptoms improved in all 5 patients when the dose of clopidogrel was reduced by half. Notably, 30% of patients (n = 103) demonstrated a hyperresponse to clopidogrel on at least 1 VNP assessment, but 98 of these patients did not suffer from severe fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: A syndrome of severe fatigue and other constitutional symptoms is a rare but clinically significant side effect of hyperresponse to clopidogrel in patients undergoing neuroendovasular intervention.

Developing microsurgical milestones for psychomotor skills in neurological surgery residents as an adjunct to operative training: the home microsurgery laboratory.

OBJECTIVE: A variety of factors contribute to an increasingly challenging environment for neurological surgery residents to develop psychomotor skills in microsurgical technique solely from operative training. While adjunct training modalities such as cadaver dissection and surgical simulation are embraced and practiced at our institution, there are no formal educational milestones defined to help residents develop, measure, and advance their microsurgical psychomotor skills in a stepwise fashion when outside the hospital environment. The objective of this report is to describe an efficient and convenient "home microsurgery lab" (HML) assembled and tested by the authors with the goal of supporting a personalized stepwise advancement of microsurgical psychomotor skills. METHODS: The authors reviewed the literature on previously published simulation practice models and designed adjunct learning modules utilizing the HML. Five milestones were developed for achieving proficiency with each graduated exercise, referencing the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) guidelines. The HML setup was then piloted with 2 neurosurgical trainees. RESULTS: The total cost for assembling the HML was approximately $850. Techniques for which training was provided included microinstrument handling, tissue dissection, suturing, and microanastomoses. Five designated competency levels were developed, and training exercises were proposed for each competency level. CONCLUSIONS: The HML offers a unique, entirely home-based, affordable adjunct to the operative neurosurgical education mandated by the ACGME operative case logs, while respecting resident hospital-based education hours. The HML provides surgical simulation with specific milestones, which may improve confidence and the microsurgical psychomotor skills required to perform microsurgery, regardless of case type.

Ghost Aneurysms in Acute Subdural Hematomas: A Report of Two Cases.

OBJECTIVE: Acute subdural hematoma (aSDH) is a common pathology encountered in neurosurgery. Although most cases are associated with trauma and injuries to draining veins, traumatic aSDH from injury to arteries or spontaneous aSDH because of a ruptured intracranial aneurysm can occur. For some patients without a clear clinical history, it can be difficult to distinguish between these etiologies purely based on radiography. The objective of this research was to describe a case series in which imaging was suggestive of the presence of distal cortical intracranial aneurysm associated with aSDH, but operative management demonstrated no evidence of aneurysm. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 2 patients known to have aSDH with suspicion for associated aneurysm between May 2019 and September 2019 at our institution. Data collected included demographic, clinical, and operative course, including age, gender, past medical history, presenting symptoms, and pre and postoperative imaging. RESULTS: In 2 patients presenting with aSDH with preoperative radiographic imaging suggesting distal middle cerebral artery aneurysms, surgical exploration revealed no aneurysm. In both cases, noniatrogenic active arterial bleeding from an injured cortical middle cerebral artery branch was identified. CONCLUSIONS: Although there are prior reports of arterial aSDH, to our knowledge, this is the first to describe the radiographic "ghost aneurysm" sign. It is important for clinicians to be aware of this potential misleading radiographic sign, which indicates active extravasation into a spherical cast of clot.

Predictors of Recurrence, Progression, and Retreatment in Basilar Tip Aneurysms: A Location-Controlled Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Endovascular treatment of intracranial aneurysms is associated with higher rates of recurrence and retreatment, though contemporary rates and risk factors for basilar tip aneurysms (BTAs) are less well-described. OBJECTIVE: To characterize progression, retreatement, and retreated progression of BTAs treated with microsurgical or endovascular interventions. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed records for 141 consecutive BTA patients. We included 158 anterior communicating artery (ACoA) and 118 middle cerebral artery (MCA) aneurysms as controls. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to calculate rates of progression (recurrence of previously obliterated aneurysms and progression of known residual aneurysm dome or neck), retreatment, and retreated progression. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to characterize 24-mo event rates for primary outcome prediction. RESULTS: Of 141 BTA patients, 62.4% were ruptured and 37.6% were unruptured. Average radiographical follow-up was 33 mo. Among ruptured aneurysms treated with clipping, there were 2 rehemorrhages due to recurrence (6.1%), and none in any other cohorts. Overall rates of progression (28.9%), retreatment (28.9%), and retreated progression (24.7%) were not significantly different between surgical and endovascular subgroups, though ruptured aneurysms had higher event rates. Multivariate modeling confirmed rupture status (P = .003, hazard ratio = 0.14) and aneurysm dome width (P = .005, hazard ratio = 1.23) as independent predictors of progression requiring retreatment. In a separate multivariate analysis with ACoA and MCA aneurysms, basilar tip location was an independent predictor of progression, retreatment, and retreated progression. CONCLUSION: BTAs have higher rates of progression and retreated progression than other aneurysm locations, independent of treatment modality. Rupture status and dome width are risk factors for progression requiring retreatment.

Postoperative cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in the setting of surgery adjacent to the major dural venous sinuses.

OBJECTIVECerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) is a known complication of surgeries near the major dural venous sinuses. While the majority of CVSTs are asymptomatic, severe sinus thromboses can have devastating consequences. The objective of this study was to prospectively evaluate the true incidence and risk factors associated with postoperative CVST and comment on management strategies.METHODSA prospective study of 74 patients who underwent a retrosigmoid, translabyrinthine, or suboccipital approach for posterior fossa tumors, or a supratentorial craniotomy for parasagittal/falcine tumors, was performed. All patients underwent pre- and postoperative imaging to evaluate sinus patency. Demographic, clinical, and operative data were collected. Statistical analysis was performed to identify incidence and risk factors.RESULTSTwenty-four (32.4%) of 74 patients had postoperative MR venograms confirming CVST, and all were asymptomatic. No risk factors, including age (p = 0.352), BMI (p = 0.454), sex (p = 0.955), surgical approach (p = 0.909), length of surgery (p = 0.785), fluid balance (p = 0.943), mannitol use (p = 0.136), tumor type (p = 0.46, p = 0.321), or extent of resection (p = 0.253), were statistically correlated with thrombosis. All patients were treated conservatively, with only 1 patient receiving intravenous fluids. There were no instances of venous infarctions, hemorrhages, or neurological deficits. The rate of CSF leakage was significantly higher in the thrombosis group than in the nonthrombosis group (p = 0.01).CONCLUSIONSThis prospective study shows that the radiographic incidence of postoperative CVST is higher than that previously reported in retrospective studies. In the absence of symptoms, these thromboses can be treated conservatively. While no risk factors were identified, there may be an association between postoperative CVST and CSF leak.

Intra- and Perioperative Complications Associated with Endoscopic Spine Surgery: A Multi-Institutional Study.

OBJECTIVE: To report on intra- and perioperative complications associated with working channel endoscopic spine surgery. METHODS: This study is a retrospective chart review of a multi-institutional patient cohort operated on by surgeons within the Endoscopic Spine Study Group between May 2010 and June 2017. RESULTS: Our study cohort consists of a total of 553 consecutive cases with an average age of 57 years. The most common procedure was an endoscopic discectomy (n = 377, 68%) followed by foraminotomy (n = 156, 28.2%), unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression (n = 55, 9.9%), and lateral recess decompression (n = 29, 5.2%). Overall, the rate of intra- and perioperative complications was 2.7%. There were 3 durotomies (0.54%), 2 epidural hematomas (0.36%), 2 patients developed a complex pain disorder (0.36%), 4 recurrent disc herniations within 3 months (1.1%), 4 systemic complications (1.1%), and no wound infections. No risk factors were identified with regards to age, sex, approach, or number of segments. CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic spine surgery is associated with a favorable rate of intra- and perioperative complications compared with reported rates of minimally invasive ortraditional open spine surgeries. Our report proposes safe and effective strategies for management of these complications.

C-2 arteriovenous fistula presenting as a pathologic hangman's fracture: case report.

The authors report on an 81-year-old woman with a pathologic hangman's fracture secondary to a complex arteriovenous fistula (AVF). The patient presented with severe, unremitting neck pain and was found to have fractures bilaterally through the pars interarticularis of C-2 with significant anterior subluxation of C-2 over C-3 along with widening of the left transverse foramen. Due to an abnormally appearing left vertebral artery (VA) on CT angiography, the patient underwent conventional angiography, which revealed a complex AVF stemming from the left VA at the level of C-2 with dilated posterior cervical veins and a large venous varix. Given the radiographic evidence of bone remodeling and the chronicity of the AVF, it is believed that the C-2 vertebra was weakened over time by the pulsatile and compressive force of the vascular malformation eventually leading to fracture with minimal stress. Coil embolization of the AVF was performed followed by surgical fixation of C-1 to C-4. This case highlights the importance of investigating an underlying disease process in patients who present with significant spinal fractures in the absence of trauma.